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Class 


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Book 


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BY THE SAME AUTHOR 



Tie 
Ona<e(D)iffi§(en<D)Biis Mnimdl 

The object of this work is to establish the fact of an uncon- 
scious mind in man, and to trace in brief some of its powers and 
the various ways in which they are exhibited. The work seeks to 
show that this mind is the seat of character and of conscience and 
spirit-life, and a most important factor in psychical and physical 
life. The subjects of habit, memory, muscular action, therapeu- 
tics, education, sensation, disease, character, sex, etc., are discussed 
in their relation to the unconscious mind. 

REPRESENTATIVE OPINIONS 

D. E. MERWIN, Sec'y and Treas. Kansas Commercial Co., Kansas 
City, Mo. : " We see in this theory the promise and potency of a new educa- 
tion, the ground of an effective therapeutics, and likewise an ethical system 
not perverted or heavily encumbered by commercial ideas. Parents, teach- 
ers, physicians, lawyers, judges, and legislators can not afford to remain in 
ignorance of this theory which lays its preemption upon the very founda- 
tions of physical health, mind, and character." 

W. BE EATEN EACHES, M.D., Phoenixville, Pa.: " The facts and 
theories pertaining to the existence and characteristics of an ' Unconscious 
Mind ' are presented with great force and clearness, and appear to me to be 
incontrovertible. The book should be read by every physician." 

J. A. HA GEM ANN, M.D., Pittsburg, Pa.: "It contains the sumtnum 
bonum in psychological literature up to date. The student will find in it a 
resume of the writings of the foremost psychologists, and the educator will 
be the better equipped for having perused it." 

T. M. HARTMAN, D.D., McKeesport, Pa.: "It is a masterly book on 
a subject that demands the earnest consideration of all scholars and think- 
ers, and is intensely fascinating from lid to lid." 

8vo, Cloth, 451 pages. With copious index and several 
diagrams. Price, $2.00. 



FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY, Publishers 
30 Lafayette Place, New York 



The Springs of Character 
by A^T/Schofield m.d. Author 
of " The Unconscious Mind ' 
etc. 






NEW YORK: FUNK AND 
WAGNALLS COMPANY 
30 LAFAYETTE PLACE 1901 



W\ 



5> 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I. 

PA8E 

Character and the Mind 1 



CHAPTER II 
The Personality of Character 13 

CHAPTER III. 
Character and the Body .«••»••• 29 

CHAPTER IV. 
Character and Ethics • . 42 

CHAPTER V. 



Oharacter and Heredity .....»., 56 

b 



x CONTENTS 

PACE 

CHAPTER VI. 
Character and Habit 69 

CHAPTER VII. 
Character and Growth ........ 88 

CHAPTER VIII 
Analysis of Character ,112 

CHAPTER IX. 
The Qualities of Character ....... 137 

CHAPTER X. 
Character and the Will ....;... 153 

CHAPTER XI. 
Character and Conduct 162 

CHAPTER XII. 
Character and Conscien 170 



CONTENTS XI 

PAGB 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Character and Christianity . ...» # , 205 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Character and Destiny .»•••••• 220 

List of Books on the Subject , , » . - . 233 

Index •••••«•••••• 287 



CHAPTER I. 

CHARACTER AND THE MIND. 

The word character means the mark a Babylonian What Chan 
brickmaker stamped upon the bricks he made. Character 
is the stamp of the individual, and all personality is ulti- 
mately based upon it The word is here used throughout 
in a purely popular way, as the sum of the distinctive 
differences in our mental and moral qualities. 

Character may be defined as the personal shape the 
mind becomes by use, as a glove or a shoe soon acquires 
the outlines of its owner's hand or foot. 

Character is the psychical, as the body is the phy- 
sical representation or presentment of the individual, and 
inasmuch as " I " am a spirit and not a body, character 
is the true outward personality, the eucwv of the ego; 
character, moreover, is no mere sum of isolated qualities, 
it is an organic whole ; just as the body is an unit, and 
not a mere aggregation of units and organs. It is, as 
Stout would say, 1 " a noetic synthesis ". 

The word character may, of course, be used in two 
senses — (i) as the general sum of all mental qualities, or 
(2) as the sum of the moral qualities specially. We shall 
use the word in both ways. 

1 G. F. Stout, Analytical Psychology, 
I 



• SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

The Springs We fear that the title of the book perhaps rather 

of Character. 

conceals than reveals its true scope ; for in the first place 
the consideration of character involves more than the 
investigation of its sources ; and secondly, the word 
" spring " has two or more meanings. It is both a source 
of being and a source of power, besides being a season of 
the year. The Thames originates from springs, and all 
watches go by springs. It will naturally be asked then 
why a more descriptive title was not selected ; and the 
answer is that it is because the most interesting questions 
concerning character are its springs, in both meanings of 
the word ; this being also the part of the subject about 
which least is known. 

The springs or sources of character are the instincts 
of heredity in the unconscious mind, supplemented 
by others acquired during life through habit ; while 
the spring or force of character lies in the conscious 
will or purpose. It is the former springs which are a 
part of character, the latter is also an agent. Deeper 
again, more powerful, and more inscrutable than even 
these in the Christian mind, acting as a hidden source of 
inspiration and energy, is found the Spirit of God. 

Books on character are few and far between ; and are 
particularly rare in this country. The whole matter is 
so elusive, so difficult of definition, and indeed so im- 
possible of any analysis, unless the unconscious powers 
of mind be fully recognised, that we are quite sure this 
is a needed preliminary, and it is probable that when 
" mind " is granted its full scope we shall have more 
and better books on character than we have at present. 



CHARACTER AND THE MIND 3 

In considering what character is, what are its sources, 
and how it is formed, we are at once met with this initial 
difficulty, due, as we shall see, to the present position of 
some of our leading psychologists. 

Character is an intricate complex of psychic elements, character lies 

, t it 1 , r 1 . in the Uncon- 

and, though the most valued of our personal possessions, scious. 
is only known very partially to us by conscious efforts 
of introspection. It is mainly discerned by observa- 
tion of its manifestations in action ; and we thus arrive 
at our knowledge of character largely by inference, mostly 
from noting the influence it has on conscious life ; just 
as we discover an invisible planet by the perturbations 
it produces in other bodies. We arrive at the Uncon- 
scious from its well ascertained effects in Consciousness. 
" The qualities of modesty, shame, mother love, etc., 
clearly to be seen in their manifestations, spring from the 
instincts hidden in the unconscious depths of our being." l 

And yet the psychic is still dogmatically and impera- The Uncon- 

1 1 • • 1 • 1 1 • i 1 • • scious Mind 

tively limited to consciousness by many high authorities ; denied. 
and the scorn and contempt aroused by seeking to extend 
it are remarkably out of place in such a purely intel- 
lectual matter. We are told that to talk of uncon- 
scious mental states is to talk of the inconceivable ; of 
" wooden -iron ". " The psychical is the conscious," 2 
says one ; another observes : " all and only the pheno- 
mena that are conscious are psychical . . . the psychical 
and the conscious are for us . . . identical" 8 ; while a 

1 Ribot, Heredity, pp. 226, 228. 

a G. T. Ladd, Philosophy of Mind, pp. 384, 385. 

•Prof. Ziehen, Psychology, pp. 4, 5, 



SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 



third declares that "nothing shall induce us to corrupt 
our speculation with monstrous marriages of contra- 
dictory notions" 1 (z>., of unconscious mind). 

However, in spite of this fervour of contradiction, we 
do not think the works of one of such psychologists can 
be searched without discovering unconscious psychism 
clearly implied, and indeed in some absolutely stated. 

The fact is, truth is generally greater than our 
definitions, and, as long as we distinguish mind from 
matter, we must include in the former every form of 
psychic action, whether conducted in or out of con- 
sciousness. 

It is now beginning to be seen that the greater part 
of the mind is in an unconscious state ; but that its 
middle registers are fitfully illumined in varying degree 
by consciousness. It is to these middle registers that 
the word " mind " has been unwisely limited — whereas 
it pertains rightly to the whole, on the ground of com- 
mon characters of psychic action. 

Kant well says, " Unanswerable are the sensations 
of perception of which we are not conscious. The clear 
ideas, indeed, are but an infinitely small fraction of the 
whole. That only a few spots in the great chart of our 
minds are illuminated may well fill us with amazement 
in contemplating this nature of ours." 2 Prof. Whittaker 
observes, " The facts of physiology have led psychologists 
to see that the series of states of consciousness . . . only 
form a portion of the mental life. At first it seems like 

1 Prof. Royce, Mind, vol. viii., p. 33. 
a E. Kant, Anthropologics sec. v. 



CHARACTER AND THE MIND 5 

a contradiction to speak of facts of unconsciousness as 
belonging to psychology. The study of physiology was 
necessary to bring out clearly the conception of uncon- 
scious feelings as factors in mental phenomena." 1 

It must be well understood that we have no wish 
whatever to speak of two minds — conscious and uncon- 
scious ; but simply to have it recognised that when we 
use the word mind we include any and every psychic 
process. It is only the arbitrary limitations that still 
rule many minds that oblige us so frequently to use 
the term "unconscious". 

Schopenhauer, curiously enough, calls this " the better Unconscious 

„ is tne best 

consciousness ; others, with a view to peace, call it " the name, 
sub-conscious"; M'Cunn 2 calls the unconscious "the 
soul," which is confusing, so that on the whole we 
think the prefix " un " gives the clearest meaning. Dr. 
Creighton remarks, " Our conscious life is the sum of 
these entrances and exits. Behind the scenes, as we 
infer, there lies a vast reserve which we call ' the un- 
conscious,' finding a name for it by the simple device 
of prefixing the negative particle. . . . The basis of 
all that lies behind the scenes is the mere negative of 
consciousness." 8 

Now the unconscious is by far the larger side of our 
mental life, and its value is enormous. It is not only 
the guiding power of the body personified by physio- 
logists as "Nature" or as "Physiology" with a big P t 

1 Prof. Whittaker, Essays on Psychology, p. 48. 

2 The Making of Character, M'Cunn, p. 7. 

3 C. Creighton, Unconscious Memory, p. 7. 



6 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

and of the feminine gender (Sir M. Foster) ; but it 
guides behind the scenes our psychic life. It furthers 
the conscious process of thought by its inspirations in 
small as in great matters. That the unconscious can 
really outdo the conscious is seen in those fortunate 
individuals who possess naturally all that others acquire 
by toil, do all with a happy knack and innate tact, 
endowed in all things with a right instinct. 

Most improvement is by effort and purpose; and 
as the unconscious knows neither one nor the other, 
the conscious is our nobler part. It is this we can alone 
guide and control. The unconscious may be influenced 
and altered indirectly, but never takes direct orders ; 
while the conscious is an ever-ready servant. 
Wundt on the The accuracy of the unconscious in its workings is 
pointed out as follows by Wundt, one of the most 
weighty and brilliant philosophers of the day. He 
admits " the necessity of referring the origin of sensuous 
perceptions, and of consciousness in general, to uncon- 
scious logical processes ; since the processes of perception 
are of an unconscious nature ; and only their results are 
wont to appear in consciousness. It is proved that there 
is not merely a conscious, but also an unconscious think- 
ing. We believe that we have hereby completely proved 
that the assumption of unconscious logical processes 
correctly declares the real nature of these processes. The 
unconscious logical processes are carried on with a cer- 
tainty and regularity which would be impossible where 
there exists the possibility of error. Our mind (as a 
whole) is so happily designed that it prepares for us 



CHARACTER AND THE MIND 7 

the most important foundations of cognition, whilst we 
have not the slightest apprehension of the modus operandi. 
This u. conscious soul, like a benevolent stranger, works 
and makes provision for our benefit, pouring only the 
mature fruit into our laps." 1 

We make no apology for this long quotation, as it 
affords a good foundation for, and throws much light 
upon, a great deal that will follow. 

It will be observed that Wundt clearly recognises this 
unconscious action as being part of, and having all the 
characters of mind. Those who deny this explain such 
action as being the result of the mere mechanical in- 
teraction of neurons. 

To call conscious psychic action a mental process, Unconscious 

Action is 

and unconscious psychic action a neural (mechanical) Mental, 
process, is the absurd result of the psychology of which 
we have spoken. 

C. H. Lewes says " we class the changes in the sen- 
sorium under three heads, of varying relative intensity, 
and call them conscious, sub-conscious and unconscious 
states. The two first are admitted by all writers. The 
last is proved to have an equal claim,, for the unconscious 
processes not only take place in the same organs as 
the others, but are shown to have the cardinal char- 
acter of sentient states, by their influence in determining 
ideas to actions. The fact of unconscious intellectual 
processes carries an important consequence, for it dis- 
proves the notion that psychology can be limited to the 

1 Wundt, Beitrage zur Theorie, etc., pp. 169, 375, 436, 488. 



8 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

fact of consciousness, as this would exclude the greater 
part of our mental life, etc. " 1 

We shall recur to the mental character of unconscious 
action further on, when we speak of habit ; but we may 
here point out the close analogy between mental and 
physical operations. We eat our food, but of the steps 
by which it is digested and assimilated we are as uncon- 
scious as we are of the way in which ideas may be 
incorporated in our characters. One thing we know, 
that indigestible ideas, like food, cause mental pain and 
dyspepsia. 

Perhaps we have said enough now to show there is a 
large and important sphere of psychic action lying outside 
consciousness, which we call the unconscious mind ; and 
it is this sphere that is the hidden home of character. 
"When I watch," says Emerson, "that flowing river 
-which, out of regions I see not, pours for a season its 
stream into me, I see that I am not ... a cause, but a 
surprised spectator of this ethereal water." In such 
absolutely unconscious regions do the foundations of our 
character lie, that we are often ourselves surprised at the 
instincts that rise therefrom ; while, as a whole, our 
character defies the closest introspection. The deepest 
and most intuitive qualities indeed often assert them- 
selves with such authority as to carry conviction that 
they speak with a voice other than our own. One 
perhaps sees this best in early years before custom and 
education have overlaid these deep instincts of the soul 

1 C. H. Lewes, Problems of Life and Mind, part i., pp. 19, 20. 



CHARACTER AND THE MIND g 

with poorer material, as is often the case. " The chief 
gain of increased consciousness," says Maeterlink, "is 
that it unveils an ever loftier unconsciousness on whose 
heights do the sources lie of the purest wisdom." 1 The 
"hall mark" of the Divine potter is still imprinted in 
the human clay. 

It is these flashes of truth from the unconscious 
logical, aesthetic and moral instincts that reveal to us how 
" the life is the light of men ". 2 

The laws of the formation of character can only be Formation of 
found by the deductive method, setting out from general 
laws of ethics, and verifying them individually by specific 
experience. 

" Each man's character is the product of particular 
environmental influences, acting upon a particular set of 
congenital properties or tendencies." 3 We may say, 
" I am the product of all I have felt . . . not a thrill 
passes through the body but our sensorium is altered 
by it . . . the sum of such traces is the human life". 4 
The chief product and expression of human life is the 
formation of character by a process which is mostly un- 
conscious. 

Sir William Jones in his Andromata, assuming life to 
last till seventy, thus divides it : — 

1. Thirty years for acquiring knowledge and for form- I 
ing character. 

2. Twenty years for active occupation. 

1 Maeterlink, Wisdom and Destiny, p. 20. 

2 St. John, i. 4. 3 J. Sully, Human Mind, ii., p. 283. 
4 C. H. Lewes, Problems of Life and Mind, 3rd series, p. 87. 



io SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

3. Ten years gradually replacing hard work by intel- 
lectual occupation. 

4. Ten years' leisure and preparation for the future 
life. 

However seldom this typical programme may be 

carried out, it is at all events certain that it is mainly 

in the first thirty years that the character is formed. 

Life and The life corresponds more or less with the character 

Character. 

of which it is the outcome. If we know the character 
first, we can predict effect from cause. It is on account 
of varieties of character that the same causes affect 
people differently. One derives great pleasure from 
study and little from sport, and vice versa. Another 
will die for his honour, while his neighbour sells it for 
a song. The reason of the differences is by no means 
always clearly visible. 

The very difficulty of reading character, as well as 
its interest, lends an absorbing fascination to this study. 
For this reason biographies are of more interest than 
histories ; the former being more occupied with char- 
acters, the latter with events, 
importance Consider, too, the universal importance of character 

of Character. r it t»«- 

as property in the whole of life. Beginning with the 
word in its lowest meaning. What is a servant without 
a " character " ; and who can get chosen to any position of 
trust without such testimonials ? And so throughout 
life we find that character is property, which may, how- 
ever, technically be lost. Sometimes it is the only 
property a person has ; though usually, if one has it he 
has much besides ; for our very fortunes in a deep sense 



CHARACTER AND THE MIND n 

are the fruits of our character. People of good character 
are indeed masters of the art of living, and a character 
noble in thought and deed has the elements of im- 
mortality. 

We live in deeds, not years ; in thoughts, not breaths, 
In feelings, not in figures on a dial. 
We should count time by heart throbs. He most lives 
Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best. 
It matters not how long we live, but how. 

Our circumstances are little, our character is all. No 
change of circumstances can of itself repair a defective 
character. 

Epictetus says, " Happiness is not in strength, or 
wealth, or power, or all three. It lies in ourselves, in 
true freedom, in the conquest of every ignoble fear, in 
perfect self-government, in a power of contentment 
and peace, and the even flow of life, even in poverty, 
exile, disease and the very valley of the shadow of 
death." 

Characters respond to very various motives. Many Motives of 
are bad and unworthy. We will consider a few that 
are good. Some characters (those of a loyal type) re- 
spond most readily to the opinion of other men ; or 
to their pledges or obligations to others. 

Others of a conservative type are more self-reliant, 
and act from loyalty to themselves. 

Others, again, of an aesthetic type are appealed to 
most by the sense of the fitness and beauty of a good 
action. Such are described by Aristotle. 

Others, again, of an emotional type (e.g., Charles 



ia SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

James Fox) respond to a consideration of the conse 
quences of action and pleasure or pain ensuing. 

Others of an intellectual type {e.g., William Pitt) 
act from logical causes, seeing the unreasonableness of 
sin and its inherent folly. 

And yet others of a Christian type respond most to 
a knowledge of the will and purpose of God in their 
being. 

The perfect type of character may be said to include 
in differing degrees all these motives in its activities. 
intellect and Intellect itself has no necessary connection with good- 

ness of character. Some of the cleverest men have been 
the most wicked, and some of the stupidest have the best 
moral characters. Happiness is no criterion of a good 
character. Some very low types that are absolutely non- 
progressive pass through life with a lazy, spontaneous 
enjoyment that is, after all, rather physical than psychi- 
cal. 

The formation of character gives a value and an 
interest to life that alone makes it in' eligible. Some 
of us may remember the man in a recent popular society 
novel l standing on the steps of the Royal Exchange and 
surveying the hurrying crowds of human ants, and won- 
dering what it all meant. It is by the light of its moral 
end alone that life receives any rational meaning, or this 
question a satisfactory answer. 



* R. Whiteing, The Island and No. 5, John Street. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE PERSONALITY OF CHARACTER. 
My character is my personality, or, if it be preferred, its My charact. 

is Myself. 

mental expression, just as the body is its physical expres- 
sion. Inasmuch, however, as I myself am spiritual 
rather than material, my character is far more myself 
than my body. 

" My body is my image in the minds of others, my 
spiritual powers form the natural ME." 1 

" Character means Personality, and personality may 
be felt, but cannot be explained." 2 

" The final stage of self-consciousness is the know- 
ledge of a personality, i.e., a character. This is the 
highest exercise of abstract thought," 3 and the reason 
why the knowledge of a personality is the final stage 
is because its sphere and home are so deep in the 
unconscious mind. Nothing is stronger than the feeling 
of individuality, and yet any knowledge and scrutiny of 
the ego, or of its expression in character, require a strong 
intellectual effort of introspection and self-analysis. 

1 W. James, Psychology, p. 194. 

*L. Courtenay, National Review, March, 1890, p. 29. 

* j. Sully, Human Mind, i. , p. 480. 

(13) 



14 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Herbert Spencer says that the ego is the " nexus " 
that holds " states of consciousness " together. But it 
holds, as we see, more than this. Our spiritual life as a 
whole is our ego. The ego is the same continuously, and 
yet continually changes. We look back on what we 
were, and see we are not the same now, and yet there is 
no doubt as to the identity of the personality. Some 
traits, of course, always remain the same, but it is hardly 
on these that the sense of identity depends, though they 
confirm it. It is rather in the continuous inherent life of 
the spirit, though generations of nerve tissue in the brain 
may perish ; just as in the body, though in its cells it dies 
and changes daily, yet it is the same body as long as it 
is indwellt by the same spirit. 

In common parlance we speak of our character as 
ourselves. We talk of being ashamed of ourselves, of 
expressing ourselves, of educating ourselves, etc. And 
this is truer than we think. No doubt at present the 
outward bodily form, and even the dress and mannerisms 
are all essential to complete the mental picture of our 
friend ; but there can be no doubt that when all these have 
passed away it will be the character that will preserve the 
personality and the identity. We shall be no mere 
replicas of each other hereafter ; the individuality of 
character will be still preserved, and one star will 
differ from another even "in glory". 

There can be no doubt, with the increased importance 
that now attaches to individuality and personality, the 
study of character has a special interest. It is more and 
more clearly seen that to begin with the social at the 



THE PERSONALITY OF CHARACTER 15 

expense of the personal is really to check progress ; 
whereas, on the other hand, the development of the 
individual means the development of society and of the 
nation. We must progress from within outward, and 
all improvement, like charity, should begin at home. 

When we come to look a little more closely into the The various 

Selves. 

question, we observe that although our true personality 
is one, there are several fictitious selves. We all know 
Wendell Holmes' " three Johns " — the real John, the 
John as seen by himself, and the John as seen by others ; 
and we remember how on this being explained by the 
" Autocrat " to the astonished John, he immediately acted 
on the information, and ate three breakfasts — one for 
each. We can even go a step farther than this ; for we 
think besides the real John, there are always at least three 
more or less fictitious Johns, and sometimes four 
clearly distinguishable. There is John himself, the 
supposed John, the artificial John, and the John seen by 
others. 

I. There is first the real self, that is the character and The real Self 
personality of which there is no duplicate. This ego is 
known only to God, and He discerns it not so much by 
any of its projections in deeds, or words, or even thoughts, 
but in motives and springs of action. He is a discerner 
" of the thoughts and intents of the heart ". To Him as 
omniscient all things are " naked and open " ; and all 
that lies in us in unconsciousness is not only as clear as 
all that lies in consciousness is to us, but is seen by an 
eye that is not only all-seeing but all-wise, and that under- 
stands the inwardness and true meaning of all it sees. 



16 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

" Thou, O God, therefore, knowest us altogether, and 
understandest our thoughts afar off." Such indeed is 
not only the biblical, but the only possible view of the 
powers of the Almighty. 

The anthropomorphic language in which this truth is 
stated will be pardoned when it is remembered that all 
our conceptions of the Infinite must necessarily be pre- 
sented in language coined to express the finite. 

This real true self, however, never stands fully 
revealed to its possessor. Our character is never in 
sight as a whole. Indeed we are more easily seen 
" as a whole " by others. Full self diagnosis as well as 
prognosis, or seeing what we shall become, is to us alike 
impossible. 

Even with the utmost introspection our consciousness 
never lights up the whole of our personal temperament, 
or shows us why we feel or think as we do. 

" He who thinks to illuminate the whole range of 
mental action by the light of his own consciousness is not 
unlike one who should go about to illuminate the universe 
with a rushlight." 1 
Cannot be To be capable to any extent by introspection of true 

self-knowledge is one of the rarest of attainments. 

We are more than we know, because, as we have 
seen, the home of the " we " is in the Unconscious ; and, 
indeed, it is when we are acting with the minimum of 
consciousness that our individuality is most strongly 
expressed. 

We have already spoken of the ego or self as 

1 Maudsley, Physiology of Mind, p. 44. 



fully known. 



THE PERSONALITY OF CHARACTER 17 

permanent, though changing day by day. Herbert 
Spencer, though regarding the ego as "the transitory 
state of the moment," yet admits the existence of 
a permanent ego which cannot be known. 

" I am," if used absolutely, cannot of course be the 
language of our ego. Such is only the language and 
name of the Uncreate, the eternal God. In us all is 
relative, and all expressions must be understood in rela- 
tive terms only. 

II. There is next the supposed se/f, the self of which The supposed 
also there is only one, the first of the fictitious series and 
the self that I believe myself to be, and is perhaps better 
described as a distorted and false self. The amount of 
its difference from the real article is the expression of my 
ignorance, and my self-deception. This self is discerned 
by me mainly from a consideration of my motives, my 
thoughts, words and deeds. Its conception, however, is 
incomplete even to myself without some addition of 
bodily appearance. 

" The self who knows and discerns itself, consists 
merely of passing states of self- consciousness as far as 
psychology is concerned, though both metaphysics and 
theology require a soul besides " (James). 

Introspection is a gazing into a mental mirror, and introspection 

good and bad. 

by continual use may be made to reveal much. Ruskin 
tells us always to have two mirrors on our toilet tables, 
and see that with proper care both body and mind are 
dressed before them daily. A looking-glass and a Bible 
perhaps best represent the mirrors, but both require the 
faculty of active inspection and observation to be of use 



18 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

in "dressing"; and both prove injurious if used to 
excess. Dr. S. Bryant says, " though self-consciousness 
may by close reflection be made to embrace the intel- 
lectual self, it does not do so naturally, except in persons 
specially marked by the introspective instinct "} 

The principal objection to all introspection is that 
it may induce a morbid habit of thought. Good as self- 
examination may be when conducted at intervals, with 
a definite view to improvement, nothing is more un- 
healthy than, by determined effort, to bring the un- 
conscious into consciousness, and to be always occupied 
with studying our own characters. The unconscious, 
like the night, is intended to be in obscurity, and as 
a rule is better left so. There is an introspection that is 
most pernicious. It is common in melancholy tempera- 
ments and sentimental characters, and is fostered by 
certain forms of religious training and by introspective 
fiction. But there is an introspection (as we have seen) 
that is most helpful. In this the searchlight is turned 
upon the unconscious that the actual attainment may be 
compared with the moral ideal, so that the man may be 
guided to fresh progress. 

One thing is certain, it is infinitely more needful 
for us to be conscious of our vices than of our virtues ; 
the former should be unmercifully bared, while the latter 
grow best in the shade. 

* Dr. S. Bryant, Mind, 1897, p. 89. 



THE PERSONALITY OF CHARACTER 

The known self has been thus tabulated : — 



19 



The Self 
know. 





Personally. 


Socially. 


Spiritually. 


Self known 
by 


Bodily Appear- 
ance and Mental 
Instincts. 


Desire to Please, 
Love, Hate, etc. 


Intellectual, Moral 

and Religious 

Aspirations. 


Self esteemed 

according to 

our 


Pride or Modesty. 


Vanity or Social 

Pride. 

Humility or 

Modesty. 


Sense of Moral, 

Mental or Religious 

Superiority or 

Inferiority. 



As a rule we can only survey ourselves subjectively, 
though we are aided by considering such external 
manifestations as words and deeds, and even our faces 
in a glass. To see ourselves objectively, i.e., without 
knowing we are looking at ourselves, is rare, and is as 
startling as when a dog perceives its image for the first 
time in a mirror. 

It was my lot a few years ago to sit talking one An external 

View of him. 

morning with some ladies in an hotel near a table in 
a drawing-room with many mirrors. I soon noticed 
another group of persons at some distance round another 
table. Being short-sighted, I could not tell what they 
were doing, but they had some appearance of playing 
cards. I thought this rather dissipated so early in the day, 
and with insular ignorance put them down as probably 
Americans. I did not think much of the man I saw. 
Certain points in his face and expression did not please 
me. I hardly thought his personal appearance was up 
to the mark, and noticed several other things (which for 
obvious reasons shall be nameless) to his detriment. He 



20 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

appeared to be looking our way, and, as far as I could 
judge, listening to us, which seemed very rude. My 
suggestion to my friends, however, not to speak so loud, 
for " those people over there would be sure to hear us," 
was met by shouts of laughter ; as they explained, the 
illusion was caused by a mirror. The shock, however, 
of thus seeing oneself objectively, has not yet passed 
away ; and I am sure we should all know more about 
ourselves could we thus have this "giftie" so ardently 
desired by Burns. Not that this would show our true 
selves, but still we should get a better idea at any rate 
of our outward expression and appearance. 

No one absolutely surveys himself in a physical 
or mental mirror with an impartial eye, as long as 
he knows it is himself he is looking at. He uncon- 
sciously extenuates the defects and magnifies the 
excellencies, and likes to think well of himself. 
The Amount The amount we can discover of our real selves 

known depends 

on the Light depends largely on the search-light used. Ordinary 
used. 

self-consciousness is the most feeble. Then comes 
active introspection — this again may be greatly aided by 
light from other minds, telling us what to look for ; also 
by others telling us what they see in us, and showing us 
our own qualities as displayed in others. Seeing them 
thus objectively is a great help. The Spirit of God, 
however, and the Word of God, rightly used, are, as we 
shall see when we consider character and Christianity, 
the most effective lights of all. The description of the 
Word of God as " quick and powerful . . . and piercing 
even to the dividing asunder of soul and spirit, of the 



THE PERSONALITY OF CHARACTER ai 

joints and marrow {i.e., the most hidden structures), and 
as a discerner of the thoughts and intents of the heart," 
represents strikingly the action of these moral Rontgen 
Rays. The power of these latter, if described a few years 
ago, would have appeared a wild fable, though now a 
scientific fact ; and these spiritual rays, though known in 
power to many, are still fabulous to others. 

III. There is the artificial self, or the second fictitious The Self I p.e 
self, which is the self / wish others to think me, and this 
is no longer single, but multiple — some indeed have as 
many selves in constant use as they have suits of clothes. 

These selves are put on and off, sometimes uncon- 
sciously and sometimes consciously ; and sometimes the 
wrong self is worn at the wrong time, with as much 
incongruity as a shooting suit at a dinner party. 

Akin to this fictitious self is the self that / think t^^m\ think 

11 i • i T /• others see. 

others see me to be. 1 hey may really think I am a fool, 
but I think they think me wise. It is obvious this self 
is multiple, and, moreover, corresponds mainly with the 
artificial self I have presented to them, and by which 
I believe their opinion to be formed. It may not, of 
course, be formed by it at all ; their insight may have 
discerned much of the real ego I have not consciously 
exhibited. We need not, therefore, dwell on this self 
further, as to all intents and purposes it is described in 
the artificial self: the former being really the impression 
and the latter the picture. 

These artificial selves or characters are seldom com- 
plete all round. They are like the allegorical figures 
Ruskin speaks of in the roof of a cathedral, which looked 



22 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

very well from the pavement ; but which, when he got a 
ladder and went up, he perceived were quite unfinished, 
and never intended for close inspection. We are not 
always prepared for our friends to walk all round us. 

People of strong individuality and self-conceit, as 
well as those of innate honesty, are seldom conscious of 
the putting on or off of this public self. Nevertheless, 
it will be seen that unconsciously the self is made to 
harmonise, to some extent at least, with its environment ; 
the self, for instance, that is exhibited to our superiors is 
seldom exactly the same as that shown to our inferiors. 
We may imagine it is, but it is not. 

Of another character altogether from this slight 
change of self-presentment, unconsciously adopted, is 
that which is put on consciously for a distinct purpose. 
This Self varies While spending four successive weeks in a theological 

with my Sur- . 

roundings. college, on a golf links, in a military camp, and in a 
city office, there are but few who would exhibit, or 
even try to exhibit, the same self. It is not only that 
some special characteristic would be emphasised in har- 
mony with the special occasion, but the whole self 
exhibited would be consciously, as well as unconsciously, 
changed each week ; the very tone of voice, the very 
attitude of body, to some extent the whole outlook on 
life, the thoughts, as well as the words and deeds, being 
different. We do not say this by way of blame, though 
often the more inferior the nature the better is it marked. 
On the other hand, the changes are often signs of a 
sensitive and sympathetic character that keenly feels 
discrepancies between the self and its surroundings ; 



THE PERSONALITY OF CHARACTER 23 

and thus ever tries to bring the former into harmony 
with the environment. Where the change is conscious 
it is nearly always effected to gain the esteem or 
goodwill of others ; and only in essentially contrary 
natures is it put on for the opposite purpose. 

Different from this, again, is the public character The fraudulent 
that is deliberately and consciously fraudulent. To 
colour your likeness (or what you suppose to be it) in 
different tints to suit different tastes is one matter ; to 
substitute a false one is another. Our characters should 
be always up to the public sample ; that is, though in 
religious company I may emphasise the religious side, 
I should never pretend to more religion than I have 
got. Our condition and character may, and should, 
continually change and improve, but the public sample 
at any time should never absolutely misrepresent, though 
it often accentuates, its qualities. 

Our public self always best expresses our real self conscious and 

. unconscious 

when we are least conscious of it. When we pose con- Selves, 
sciously we represent what we think we are. When we 
act unconsciously we exhibit what we are. Now, if the 
real or unconscious self is superior to the supposed or 
conscious self, we are at our best when unconscious of 
our actions. If, on the other hand, our unconscious self 
is at a lower level than our conscious self we are at 
our worst. Every one must know these two types of 
character. The man who is always most refined and 
at his ease when he forgets himself, and only awkward 
when conscious ; and the man who behaves well as long 
as he is on his guard, but when he forgets himself shows 



24 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

he is at heart a boor : in the former it is the uncon- 
scious mind that is the better educated ; in the latter 
the conscious. 

We may say, then, that the public self always is 
unconsciously varied to some extent to suit the com- 
pany or pursuit ; that it is in addition often further 
modified consciously and purposively for definite ob- 
jects ; and furthermore that only by the unprincipled 
are qualities put on that are not possessed at all, or 
are, at any rate, far in excess of the reality. 

Perhaps we should here add one word of qualifica- 
tion, as in any study of character all absolute statements 
must be more or less incorrect, so complex is the problem 
to be considered. 

While, therefore, the true motto of every upright man 
is " To be, and not to seem," it is also true that our out- 
ward or public self is in many better than what we are 
(in some, of course, it is worse), because it represents our 
ideal of what we would be rather than what we are at 
the time. This is good, and is a constant cause of 
improvement by bringing our character up to our 
conduct rather than levelling our conduct down to our 
character. It will be seen that only if carried to excess 
such better conduct might amount to deceit and fraud. 
Good or evil seldom characterise us absolutely, but 
in relative proportions ; and one can see from the 
foregoing that that person may be absolutely nobler 
and more progressive whose public self is slightly in 
advance of the private, than where the two entirely 
correspond. 



THE PERSONALITY OF CHARACTER 25 

IV. Lastly there is the self others see y which is the third The Self as 

seen by others. 

fictitious self. The judgment of others on us is largely 
founded upon our outward appearance, including not only 
our bodies but our dress, coupled with such indications of 
our spirits as they can read in our acts and words, or 
perhaps, as we say, "between the lines". 

It will be observed that in the various selves de- 
scribed, beginning with what is seen by God, and end- 
ing with ourselves as seen by others, the judgment is 
increasingly dependent upon outward manifestations, 
including at last even our clothes, and possibly our 
houses and our productions. Some indeed may even 
judge us by our children ; or, if pastors, by our flock ; or, 
if doctors, by the testimony of our patients. The esti- 
mate of a man's character is drawn from a wide field, the 
greater part of which is external to himself. All beneath 
our influence have a voice as to our character ; and with 
sovereigns this includes a whole kingdom. 

We may notice this progressively external judgment Self judged in- 
creasingly by 
in many things. Take a watch for instance. A friend Externals. 

looking on the case and face says : " A very nice watch ". 

I, knowing its qualities and properties, say : " Yes ! a 

good timekeeper". The maker, knowing the works, 

quality of mainspring, number of jewels, says : " It is an 

English lever of the best make, jewelled in six holes." 

Here are the three progressive judgments from without 

in. 

A judgment of the character of another, founded 

upon a close study of its display in his life, and in all 

over which he has influence, from his clothes to his 



26 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

friends and pursuits, is generally fairly correct in its 
main outlines. 

A man, roughly speaking, as a rule passes for what 
he is worth ; only the greater his value, the less likely 
he is to do so. The nearer the average, the more likely ; 
because in the former case the minority, and in the latter 
the majority, of men can understand him. 
instructive Every day the man lives before us is in a sense a 

Insight into 

Character. judgment day ; and in view of the light he unconsciously 
sheds on his own character, all conscious attempts at 
concealment or exaggeration avail nothing. Men may 
not know how they know, but they do know ; and a deep- 
seated distrust of a man is often well-founded. Some 
indeed, especially women, have special instincts as to 
character. I know one, who, riding for the first time in 
a carriage with a man of high reputation and ostensibly 
of Christian character, came home in great agitation 
declaring he was a wicked man. Nothing had tran- 
spired. It was her instinct alone that produced this 
conviction, for which she was severely blamed, and 
which was only justified by what was brought to light 
years after. 

As a rule, people have not this gift, and, like all in- 
stincts, it is not a very safe one to rely on. We may 
seeing the hands keeping perfect time on the face of a 
watch, safely deduce that there must be a good main- 
spring within ; and, on the other hand, where a bad char- 
acter is sought to be concealed, the limits of dissimulation 
imposed by the face, the body, the unconscious actions 
and words, often prevent it from being successful. 



THE PERSONALITY OF CHARACTER 27 

However much we may think we " see " others, we 
should be very slow in judging them ; particularly if we 
only know them slightly. The deeper the character, the 
less likely is it to come to the surface in a short time. 
Deep characters are thus necessarily more often ill judged 
than shallow ones. 

If our character is growing and we are progressing, Growing and 

stationary 

the estimate of others is generally rather too high ; Characters. 
inasmuch as in such cases our conduct, based on our 
ideal, is generally in advance of our actual-character. If 
our character is stationary, the estimate is more likely to 
be true. 

If our character is deteriorating, the estimate is again 
generally too high, for we cling to good conduct even 
after good principles have been abandoned. Degrada- 
tion of character is seldom due to the pursuit of an ideal, 
but rather to the loss of one. 

Frequently our friends lay hold of a salient point 
which is the leading, or at any rate the most conspicuous 
feature in our character, and see all the rest in its light. 
A picture based on such a view (generally exaggerated) 
is called a caricature. Portraiture is a balanced estimate 
of the man as a whole. 

When an honest man finds the opinion of others as 
to his character is what he believes to be in advance ot 
the truth, it may serve as an incentive to become equal 
to his reputation ; and to make, perhaps, the solitary act, 
or the temporary impulse that produced it, and on which 
that reputation is founded, an integral and permanent 
feature of his character. The opinion of others is indeed 



28 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

one of the agents that materially assist in the growth of 
character. 
The Con- The conclusion of the matter, therefore, is that my 

character is myself, but cannot be known by myself; 
that it is probably best discerned by one who has had 
constant opportunity of knowing my thoughts, and words, 
and deeds, and my manner of life for some years ; that 
the simpler and shallower the character the more likely 
is such an estimate to be correct ; that in some respects 
I may be able to discern in myself by introspection 
features that others never see ; but that, as a whole, my 
estimate of myself is not likely to be so true as that 
formed by a friend who has had the opportunities we have 
described. That God alone knows all that I am, and that 
He who perfectly knows my character can and will, on 
certain conditions, aid me to mould it on perfect lines, 
not with the idea of its ever attaining perfection here — 
but hereafter. 



CHAPTER III. 

CHARACTER AND THE BODY. 
The body acts on the mind and the mind acts upon the interaction 

of Mind and 

body, and in certain cases both appear to act together ; Body, 
so that we cannot say which is cause and which effect, 
nor even if there be sequence, or what the sequence is. 

On the a priori conclusion that spirit and matter can 
have no connection with each other for want of a common 
term we need not waste time ; for there is overwhelming 
positive proof that the one does affect the other. " The 
spirit can take the body, and by conscious and un- 
conscious activities mould it for a dwelling-place and 
instrument for its uses." x Of the way in which this is 
effected, and a nerve impression becomes a mental 
percept, or a mental concept becomes a nerve impression, 
we know absolutely nothing ; neither can our minds 
apparently as yet furnish an intelligible hypothesis. 
In the brain the effect of the mind action is as yet too 
obscure to be discussed. That there are changes in- 
cessantly produced and that the brain of a man differs 
from a child's we know, but the relation of qualities of 
mind with characters of brain is profoundly obscure ; 

1 Noah Porter, Human Intellect, p. 39. 

(29) 



30 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

perhaps the more so through the failure of the artificial 
system suggested by phrenology. As far as we know 
we have no organs in the brain connected with any 
special qualities. Wundt says, " Actual neurology has 
as much connection with the assumption of the brain's 
mission of moral intuition, as astronomy and geography 
with Jules Verne's tales ". 
Character im- Turning, however, to the body generally, we see 

pressed on the 

Body plainly not only that the mind does re-act upon it, but 

that we can, in a rough way, see there the lines of character 
physically impressed. Emerson says: "The human body 
is wonderfully expressive. If it were made of glass, and 
the thoughts were written on steel tablets within, it could 
not publish more truly their meaning than now. Wise 
men can hear all our past history proclaimed in our 
looks, gait, and behaviour, for the tell-tale body is all 
tongue." 

The body is altered by the character entirely through 
the action of the unconscious mind. To it we owe the 
intelligent and varied permanent expressions of the face, 
the only characteristic forms being those that are uncon- 
scious ; so readily distinguished from the conscious imita- 
tions put on artificially and temporarily by the force of 
the will. To it we owe the carriage of the body, so 
that you can judge of a man's character by his gait, his 
postures, his physical manner and habits ; the uncon- 
scious mind in its nobility or degradation being indelibly 
stamped not only on the face but upon the form. 

He is a dull scholar who cannot read a man even from 
a back view. 



CHARACTER AND THE BODY 31 

Round the statue of the Prince Consort in Edinburgh 
stand representative groups paying homage to him. If 
you get a back view of any of these you see mind stamped 
not even on flesh, but on stone, and can tell at once the 
sailor or soldier, peasant, scholar, or workman, and this 
not alone by the dress. 

Look at the body and face of a man whose mind is By the uncon 

scious Mind. 

gone. Look at the slouching, cringing body of a man 
who has lost his self-respect. Look at the body of a 
thief, a sot, or a miser. Compare the faces and expres- 
sions of a beggar, a philanthropist, a policeman, a scholar, 
a sailor, a lawyer, a doctor, a shopwalker, a sandwich- 
man, a farmer, a manufacturer, a nurse, a lady, a servant, 
a barmaid, a nun, an actress, an art student, and answer 
to yourself two questions : First, are these different 
expressions of body and face due essentially to physical 
or psychical causes ? And secondly, are they consciously 
or unconsciously produced ? The answers will leave no 
doubt that the mind can unconsciously display psychical 
conceptions by physical media. 

With regard to the face, the fact that the effects of a Character in 

, . , . - . the Face. 

man s occupation are stamped upon the visage is found 
written in a papyrus of the date of B.C. 2000. 

The five most common vices that are shown upon the 
face are pride, sensuality, fear, cruelty, and bad temper. 

The mental impress on the face is perhaps least seen 
in the eyes themselves, and most in the lines around the 
nose and mouth. 

It is said that a man can successfully lie with his 
eyes, but not with his mouth. The face is such an index 






^ 



32 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

of character that the very growth of the latter can be 
traced upon the former, and most of the successive lines 
that carve the furrowed face of age out of the smooth 
outline of childhood are engraved directly or indirectly 
by mind. There is no beautifier of the face like a beau- 
tiful spirit. The want of mind lowers all the powers of 
the body ; but so does an evil and debased mind, which 
is still more wonderful. 

Dr. Thompson, surgeon to H.M. Prisons in Scotland, 
says, after observation for eighteen years : " I have never 
seen such an accumulation of morbid appearances as 
here. Scarcely any die of any one disease, for almost 
every organ of the body is more or less diseased or 
degenerated ". 
The Body On the other hand, a good character is good for 

affects the . 

Character. health, and is associated with longevity. Intellectua 1 
occupation is frequently a factor in long life. When 
the average duration of life is forty, poets average fifty- 
seven and clergymen sixty-five. Of course, there are 
other factors as well. 

It is very curious how we place our body in attitudes 
expressive of mental states. If we try to see a thing 
with our mind we often put an intense and strained 
expression into our eyes. If we are in a state of delight 
our eyes are fixed in ecstasy. Great grief paralyses 
the body. In staying with friends a person with a good 
ear and imitative character soon adopts unconsciously 
the voice and mannerisms of his host ; and not only so, 
but I have an authentic case where the handwriting 
unconsciously always resembled that of the host for the 



CHARACTER AND THE BODY 33 

time being. It is impossible to be seized with a vivid 
idea without the whole body being placed in harmony 
with it. 

On the other hand the body affects the character. 

" The soul," says Theophrastus, " pays a dear rent 
for living in the body." Our characters are affected i 
and modified by digestion, circulation, general health, 
and at certain periods of life. The effects of a feeble 
or crippled body on character are strongly marked ; and 
of this Lord Byron is a well-known example. Rousseau 
says 1 the weaker the body is the more it commands. 
It commands in the hour when we cannot face our 
work, or when it makes us, in spite of our will, morbid, 
irritable and wrong-headed in our estimation of men 
and things. Also, it is the strong body that obeys. 
Hence the force of the ethical argument for physical 
education. Bodily health is undoubtedly a condition 
of the soundness of practical judgment. 

If a child be bound hand and foot and brought up 
without any exercise, it is said that it will grow up an 
idiot. If a limb be lost early in life, a corresponding 
part of the brain remains undeveloped. No part of the 
body is moved without moving the brain. " Walking 
on the tight rope," says Sir B. W. Richardson, " is as 
much an intellectual exercise as conjugating a Greek 
verb." 

The association of types of character with types of Correspond- 
body has been studied, as we shall see later on, by and physical 

Types. 
1 Quoted in The Making of Character ; M'Cunn, p. 56. 

3 



34 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Furneaux Jordan, a well-known hospital surgeon. He 
was first attracted to the study by observing that the 
women in his accident ward, in a series of years, who 
were suffering from injuries inflicted by their husbands, 
conformed to a well-marked general physical type which 
he thus describes : — 

" The skin is pink and white ; hair and eyebrows 
scanty; fairly stout; markedly shell- shaped round 
backs, convex transversely and longitudinally; head and 
shoulders inclined forward ; tongues sharp." 

This type he classed as the non- passionate active 
temperament, and these in both men and women he 
further described as follows : — 

Clear complexion ; nails soft and weak ; hair growth 
poor ; eyebrows scanty ; head projects forwards (Napo- 
leon) ; round back ; body more or less markedly fat. 

The other type of the passionate inactive tempera- 
ment have flat backs, the head held up and drawn back, 
skin dark or pigmented, lean body, abundant hair and 
good eyebrows ; and such women do not apparently 
suffer injuries from their husbands, 
shell-backs, One " psychological " (?) novel, at least, has been 

Scanty Hair . ...... 

and Crime. written on the strength of the above, in which it is 
foretold that a woman will be murdered by her husband 
because she has scanty hair and a round back ! But 
until natural types of character are more clearly defined 
than at present, it is obviously impossible accurately to 
describe types of body to correspond. 

We may rest, however, on the undoubted facts that 
the body is closely associated with mind and character ; 



CHARACTER AND THE BODY 35 

that the character tends to be impressed on the whole 
body, more particularly on the face ; that the size and 
general shape of the head has some slight connection 
with that of the mind ; and that the nervous structure 
of the brain is always modified by use. With these 
conclusions we must at present be content. 

But character is not only stamped upon such respon- 
sive materials as flesh and blood, but upon inanimate 
objects, as dress, furniture, etc. 

Dress, indeed, is very closely connected with char- Dress and 
acter. Who are these who are arrayed in white robes ? 
— the purity of the dress is symbolical of that of the 
character. What an intense instinctive judgment we 
form of a person's (particularly a woman's) character 
from her dress ! It is often so intense that subsequent 
knowledge modifies it with difficulty, and never wholly 
obliterates it, as in other surroundings, which we will 
consider in Chapter VI. In early life dress helps to 
form the character, in later life it expresses it. 

Furniture, and other immediate environments, as we 
shall see, act in this double way ; and a person's bed- 
room indicates many of the mental qualities of its 
occupant. 

Of course this varies, some characters stamping 
themselves physically on their intimate surroundings 
much more deeply than others. 

Whether, however, in any particular case it is the 
physical that stamps the mental, or the mental the 
physical, the science of character does not tell us, but 
the action in either case is wholly unconscious. 






36 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

what is The science of character itself is called ethology, 

from rjOos, character, and is to character what a system of 
ethics is to the qualities that compose it. The first 
attempt to embody this science in a system on a material 
basis was called phrenology. With it was associated, 
more or less loosely, physiognomy. When the former 
of these got somewhat discredited, other attempts were 
made of a half-hearted nature, and of an empirical kind, 
to establish some science of character. One, for instance, 
was based upon temperaments, and others on even more 
visionary and arbitrary bases. 

But we should beware, however absurd to us a science 
based on cranial protuberances or even " temperaments " 
may seem, of attempting to cast ridicule upon the 
labours of scientific men, whose systems were quite 
abreast of the knowledge of their day. 

The phrenology of Gall and Spurzeim, indeed, how- 
ever hopeless to us its details may appear, was, after all, 
the only serious and exhaustive attempt that has been 
made to form a science of character, and it was of some 
undoubted value, inasmuch as it was based upon the 
connection, now known to be so close, of mind and 
brain. The germ of truth in phrenology was the idea 
that every psychical impulse is accompanied by some 
physical change ; that a "psychosis" involves a "neurosis". 
Far from being discredited., the advance of cerebral physi- 
ology has demonstrated this in so many instances that it 
is now doubted by few. Character is thus stamped upon 
the body, though not in the charmingly simple manner 
shown by printed lables on phrenological heads. 



ii - •• ■' - 



CHARACTER AND THE BODY 



37 



How is it then we have not advanced further in Difficulties 

of Ethology 

ethology, that it yet boasts no text-books or manuals ? 
There are many reasons, for the subject is surrounded 
with difficulties. 

Characters are probably of as many varieties as there 
are people in the world. At any rate, amongst civilised 
nations it is extremely probable there are no two persons 
exactly alike in character. Ethics, indeed, is regarded 
as a fairly well-established science, whatever views may 
be held as to the best system ; but it consists in the 
generalising of abstracts, the individual application of 
which, to personalities, is a very different matter, and 
it is this which constitutes character. 

We have a well-developed science of the population of 
the globe, varied as it is, and we call it " Ethnology " : 
why then should we not have its sister, without the "n"? 
Mankind is divided into types and races, why not char- 
acters ? In spite of the difficulty, it is hard to say why 
more has not been done. As we have shown, a vague 
attempt has been made to class characters by tempera- 
ments, but with very little more success than by the 
bumps of phrenology. Perhaps a reason given in an 
earlier chapter is, after all, the real cause why we still 
wait for a true science of character. It is the fact 
that only within the last few years has the vast 
sphere in which it resides, the unconscious mind, been 
studied with any care, or even admitted as a serious 
concept. It is evident that this region must be better 
known and recognised, and the real nature of the 
operations conducted within its limits, such as habit 



38 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

and instinct, better understood before we can make 
much advance. 
Further Data Any light on the changes in the physical brain, on 

needed. 

the true action and modification of the neurons, on the 
crux of the whole question — the link between mind and 
matter — and the manner in which the former affects the 
latter, would also be of the greatest help. No doubt, if 
it is to wait for all this, Ethology will, for a long time, be 
a science of the future ; but advances are now so rapid, 
that perhaps ere long enough will be known to provide 
some sort of a true rational basis for the formation of 
a science of character. 
Phrenology. But to return to phrenology — which is one of the 

many melancholy instances of the evil of generalising 
from insufficient data, or imperfectly understood pheno- 
mena — while we have no wish, as we have said, to 
cast ridicule on any earnest work, perhaps we may be 
permitted to give the following typical instance of the way 
in which the " facts " of phrenology were " proved " : — 

Combe says, 1 " In a child with a part of the skull 
removed over the phrenological site of self-esteem and 
love of approbation, I felt a distinct swelling up and 
pulsation of the ' organ ' of self-esteem, and the same 
movements, but in a less degree, in that of love of 
approbation. When I began to talk to her she was shy, 
but as she got at her ease, the movements in self-esteem 
decreased and those of love of approbation increased. . . . 
This was repeated and the same results followed. At 

1 Quoted by A. Bain, On The Study of Character, p. ioo. This 
work is practically a study of phrenology with efforts to improve it. 



CHARACTER AND THE BODY 39 

questions in mental arithmetic the movements ceased. 
Then we praised her, and the movement returned." (!) 

In phrenology the " organs " were arranged under the 
well-known three heads of emotion, intellect and will. 
It is needless to give the list in extenso. The emotions 
were subdivided into those that end in feeling and those 
that result in action. The former were termed by 
Spurzeim sentiments, and included self-esteem, hope, 
wonder, wit, etc. ; while the latter were termed pro- 
pensities, such as combativeness, destructiveness, love of 
life, acquisitiveness, etc. 

Bain did not consider this distinction clear, but made improved 

, , . r i by Bain. 

instead two lists of sensations and emotions. 

The sensations were muscular, sexual, organic and 
special. 

The emotions were wonder, terror, timidity and 
courage, the tender emotions, egotism, self-esteem, self- 
love, love of power, irascibility, love of humanity, sym- 
pathy, and fine art emotions. 

He moreover constructed as an improvement on 
phrenology (which undoubtedly it was) a list of the 
primitive faculties of mind, as follows : — 

Amativeness, philoprogenitiveness, concentration, 
adhesiveness, combativeness, destructiveness, alimenta- 
tion, love of life, secretiveness, acquisitiveness, con- 
struction. 

Sentiments. — Self-esteem, love of approbation, cau- 
tiousness, benevolence, veneration, firmness, conscien- 
tiousness, hope, wonder, ideality, wit, imitation. 

Intellectual — The five special sensations, individuality, 



4 o SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

form, size, weight, colouring, locality, number, order, 
eventuality, time, tune, language, comparison, causality. 

These lists, bearing as they do such a stamp of 
empiricism in the very coining of the words, might be 
multiplied ad nauseam. 

No doubt each of us could make a list of qualities we 
think it desirable should enter into the composition of 
a good character, and coin more or less hideous names 
of many syllables to express them ; but no such attempts 
can ever form the foundation of a true science. 
Failure to Mill long strove to discover the science of character, 

establish 

Ethology. but failed, and confessed it, and ended by declaring that 
all men began alike. 

The attempt to found characters upon temperaments, 
as we have seen, has never been carried very far with 
regard to their classification ; though temperament is 
wrought in the very texture of our life, and is fortunately 
itself susceptible of indefinite modification. 

Leonard Courtenay says, 1 with what reason we know 
not, " that the choleraic temperament is strong and quick, 
the melancholic strong and slow, the sanguine weak and 
quick, the phlegmatic weak and slow ". 

Furneaux Jordan 2 makes practically four classes, two 
of either sex. 
Jordan s Types The active and little passionate female type who never 

of Character. . . 

rests, is ever occupied with little things, full of trials, 
always cleaning, fond of jumping to conclusions, full of 
small interests, given to change, capable, shallow but 

*L. Courtenay, National Review, March, 1890, p. 31. 
2 Furneaux Jordan, Character in Body and Parentage. 



CHARACTER AND THE BODY 41 

clear, very sensitive to ridicule, fond of judging others, 
very self-conscious with little self-analysis, who never 
forgets herself for her duty, and whose general aim is 
good. 

The man of the same type has these qualities more 
accentuated ; is conservative, moral, self-reliant, assertive, 
unhappy in repose, and as a husband (alas !) is often 
a failure. 

The reflective and impassioned woman has quiet 
manners, is hard to read, not restless or complaining, 
matures slowly, is a cruel stepmother, though often an 
affectionate wife ; loves and hates too much, is best at 
home, is led by impulse rather than by thought, fond of 
animals, tolerant and has little self-consciousness. 

The similar type of man is reflective, quiet, praises 
often and never scolds. 

Such crude distinctions remind us more of a seance 
in palmistry than of any serious scientific work ; and we 
should not quote the above, were it not for a curious 
connection that Dr. Jordan has observed between the 
types described, and certain physical peculiarities of 
which we have already spoken. 

Character has also been discerned (though fortunately 
there has been no attempt to form a science therefrom) 
by palmistry, by investigating the spots on the irides 
by the handwriting, by the hair and nails, by the teeth 
and various other parts of the body. Physiognomy 
perhaps remains as the most scientific index of character, 
and it is, as we have seen, upon the face that the mind 
is most clearly written upon the body. 



CHAPTER IV. 

CHARACTER AND ETHICS. 

Ethics, Morals The system of Ethics is perhaps the nearest approach 

and Character 

we have at present to a science of character, without 
actually being this in any sense ; but as it is allied to it, 
it will be well for us now to consider the relation of 
ethics to character, which appears to be somewhat as 
follows : — 

Ethics is the abstract science of those activities of the 
human soul (chiefly social) which we term moral, and 
the professor of ethics is therefore a Scientist, Morals 
is the applied science or art which deals with the same 
activities, and the teacher of morals is an Artist. The 
character is the product of the art of morals, embodied 
and realised in a living human personality. 

For example, in painting there is a science of perspec- 
tive and colours which the scientist investigates, though 
he may have no idea how to draw or paint. 

There is an art of painting which the painter acquires, 
and which the professor of painting teaches. Lastly 
there is the picture which the artist paints. 

Ethics is thus the science of morals ; and the difference 
between this and character is that between the abstract 

(42) 



CHARACTER AND ETHICS 43 

and the applied, between mechanics and an engine, 
physiology and a man. 

" Ethics," says Dr. Martineau, " is the doctrine of 
human character." The term doctrine is a little unfor- 
tunate. Doctrine means teaching. We speak of Plato's 
doctrine, Ruskin's doctrine, etc. It is the exposition of 
a science or art by an individual teacher. Doctrine, 
therefore, changes in accordance with the extent of 
knowledge. Science is a better word, for science proper 
will not change, being the systematised knowledge of 
eternal principles and laws. On the other hand, not 
only doctrine, but art itself varies with the growth of 
knowledge and idea of beauty. 

Ethics are the principles of our moral activities in- 
vestigated and systematised by reason and intellect. 
Morals are, however, not founded upon reason or 
intellect, but spring from the moral sense (conscience) 
within, and the law of God without. 

The relation of the conscience or moral sense to ethics Ethics and 
is identical with the relation of the aesthetic and artistic 
sense to fine arts. It is the natural inborn and intuitive 
perception of those eternal and natural principles which 
it is the business of ethics to make explicit. 

Thus we have, first, the eternal principles themselves. ; 
second, their rational and intelligent analysis — ethics ; 
third, the intuitive perception of them — conscience ; 
fourth, their concrete and practical exhibition — character. 
This is the order of merit ; the real order in which we 
advance is: First, the moral sense; second, the character; 
third, the system of ethics ; fourth, the discovery of the 



44 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

underlying and eternal principles. Character is the 
product of the external influences of nature and of God. 
as well as of the moral sense within. 
Religion and Wundt traces three stages in the history of morals, 

Morals. 

In the first morals are entirely religious ; in the second 
a clear distinction is seen between religion and morals ; 
and in the third the two 5 though seen to be distinct, are 
united in the common object. The right is seen to be 
the good, and the wrong bad. This analysis is no doubt 
historically true in Europe, but does not represent the 
natural and universal development. 

Every human being has a rudimentary moral sense, 
and the adjustment of his conduct to the moral relations 
which he naturally feels should exist between himself and 
his environment (God, Nature and his fellowmen) forms 
his character. 

We must thus first of all assume the existence of a 
universal principle of moral sense. We then observe 
that its local development varies in different places and 
races, thus resembling religion. For, as religions appear, 
we observe how they are affected by national and racial 
characteristics. How the family dominates the Confucian 
ideal and makes for domestic virtues ; how the State 
dominates the Graeco- Roman ideal, and makes for 
political virtue ; how individualism dominates the 
Buddhist ideal, and makes for the detachment of the 
individual from his environment ; how Christianity is 
characterised by its true balance of the claims of God 
and man. 

The Chinaman worships his domestic ancestor ; the 



CHARACTER AND ETHICS 45 

Hebrews regarded Jehovah as a national God ; the idols 

of Greek and Rome were local and tribal ; the Buddhist 

is lost in his god, and god in him ; the Christian worships 

the God and Saviour of all men ; the morals in every 

case following the character of the religion and God. 

We turn now from these general considerations to look Greek, Chris- 
tian and 
specially at Greek ethics, Christian ethics and (what ModernEthics 

may be termed) Modern ethics, on each of which we 

will offer some very brief remarks. 

Greek ethics, in the youth of the civilised world, aimed 
at reaching good and present happiness (though seen to 
be partly unattainable) by external action. 

In the middle or Christian era happiness was more 
relegated to another world, and obedience to duty and 
Divine laws were the principles in evidence ; while now, 
in the present day, many philosophers base conduct on 
natural laws apart from dogma, and look more to the 
future in this world than in the next. We will very 
briefly glance at these three schools. 

One of the peculiarities of the Greek ethical systems Peculiarities 

of the Greek 

was this — that they arose out of the ashes of the Greek School, 
religious systems. They were exclusively moral philo- 
sophies — scientific and intellectual ; not moral arts — 
religious and emotional. 

They are not therefore strictly comparable with 
Christianity or other religions, which are moral arts, not 
sciences. We may no doubt form a Christian moral 
science, but it ever remains subordinate to the Christian 
art of living ; whereas in Greece the intellectual element 
was dominant ; the philosophers repudiated absolutely 



46 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

the pagan moral art, and made no attempt to justify 
it ; nor did they attempt to put a more rational art or 
religion in its place. Consequently Greek ethics for the 
mass of mankind were utterly ineffectual ; for mankind 
in general wants an art, not a philosophy. 
Greek Ethics All Greek ethics were unpsychological in their 

un psycho- 
logical, methods, reasoning from the universe without to the ego 

within, instead of vice versd ; finding the rules for govern- 
ance of self in the principles seen in Nature. 

One great school recognised nothing but passing 
sensations (Protagoras), another postulated a permanent 
" Ego " and a " God," and a reason founded on their 
existence (Zeno), while Plato and Aristotle sought to 
adjust both of these into one system of ethics. 

All Greek schools assumed that to be capable of 
knowing anything one must have a share of its nature 
in yourself ; an assumption of the most profound truth 
and importance, as we shall see when we come to speak 
of the growth of character from ideas. 

Isolated maxims existed from all ages, but the real 
teaching of ethics, or of the science of conduct, began 
with the Sophists (B.C. 500), and from this period the 
tendency of all Greek ethical teaching was to bring every 
spring of action which had hitherto been instinctive 
within the range of conscious will, and thus within the 
range of morals and under the guide of moral laws in- 
stead of impulses. 
Ethics of Plato To come to details, Plato gives us three elementary 

and Aristotle. ° 

natural qualities or appetences : Reason {yov<$\ Impulse 
(Ovfxosi) and Appetite (iindvfiia) y which in their perfect 



CHARACTER AND ETHICS 47 

expression formed the three virtues of wisdom, courage 
and self-control. 

Over these three he placed " Right " (Blkclioo-vvti) or 
Justice, in other words, conscience or the moral sense, 
which gave the appetences their value and directed their 
use. 

The four cardinal virtues therefore were wisdom, 
courage, self-control or temperance, and justice or right. 

Plato insisted that the true art of living is an act of 
dying to mere sense, in order more fully to exist in 
intimate union with goodness and beauty — a noble and 
profound thought in harmony with the fuller teaching 
of Christianity. Plato further insisted that the proper 
aim of man is not pleasure, but truth, beauty and right ; 
which are to be sought for their own worth. 

With Aristotle, too, pleasure is not the end of well- 
being, but an accident in it. The two were thus con- 
nected, not as equal objects, but as cause and effect. 

After Aristotle wisdom and pleasure were divorced, 
each being made objects of life by the two rival schools 
of Stoics and Epicureans. 

Curiously enough, benevolence or love to others is 
not recognised definitely by Plato or Aristotle, and first 
appears in Cicero and the later Stoics. 

Both in Plato and Aristotle the political virtues are 
dominant ; they aim at making good citizens by sub- 
ordinating the lower animal principles to the reason. 
But the Greek idea of the state was a very narrow 
one, excluding women and foreigners ; hence purity and 
benevolence have no place in their systems. 



48 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Later Greek It is notable how, with the decay of the Greek states, 

Ethics. 

pleasure, i.e., individual happiness, came to be made the 
end of existence. While the Greek 7roXt? was in its 
vigour such a philosophy could not have much vogue. 

We may further remark generally that the Greeks 
looked on all the virtues as one in essence, however 
diverse in expression. With this the latest utterance 
of our philosophers agrees : " However diverse they (the 
virtues) may appear . . . the seeing and sympathetic 
eye may trace underneath all diversities one and the 
same moral spirit striving manifoldly to vitalise human 
nature ". 1 

In Neo-Platonism (Plotinus, etc.), which was contem- 
porary with early Christianity (A.D. 300), and in Philo 
we get the idea that good resides in the soul, and evil 
in the body. 

The earlier Greek ethics were remarkably pure and 
lofty, and represent probably the greatest height the 
natural conscience of man can reach, apart from express 
revelation, when trained by philosophic thought. 

We may now pass on to Christian ethics with just 
one illustration from the death-bed of the heathen philo- 
sopher Theophrastus (B.C. 300) of the serious way in 
which life was regarded. His last words were : " Few 
things in life are solid goods. For my own part it is 
too late for me to consider which way of life is the most 
eligible ; but you, who are to survive me, cannot think 
too deliberately before you make your choice." 

1 Prof. M'Cunn, The Making of Character (1900), p. 132. 



CHARACTER AND ETHICS 49 

Christianity includes both the Christian religion and Christian Re- 
ligion and 
Christian ethics. The former has a distinct circle of Ethics. 

ideas that are not necessarily included in any form of 
ethics. These doctrines are partly based on the moral 
sense, but transcend its sphere in every way. Christian 
ethics are their result, not their cause. Christian doc- 
trines include a sense of sin (of which there is no trace in 
Athenian philosophy), of personal alienation from God — 
a scheme of redemption and holiness by the work of, and 
through faith in, a Person ; an inward sanctification by the 
Spirit of God, and eternal life with Jesus Christ our Lord. 
Those who would reduce Christianity to the ethics it 
contains will here see how much is superadded by such 
doctrines, and how the circle of thought indicated above 
must modify and react on all previous ethical theory ; 
so that Christian ethics become necessarily a compound 
of religion and ethics ; or perhaps we may say that 
Christian ethics is one thing and Christian religion 
another. 

The point is that in Christianity ethics must always Religion is 

more than 

be subordinate to religion — the philosophy to the life , Ethics. 
whereas in Greece the opposite was the case — when the 
philosophers arose Greek nature worship was dying. 

Ethics have very little effect on character. Religion 
has much ; it is a natural school of character. Ethics 
do not mould character as religion does ; they do not 
affect the emotions, they have no vital force, and are 
purely intellectual. Let it be clearly understood, how- 
ever, that religion without morality is dead, but that 
morals apart from religion may exist. 

4 



50 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

importance No doubt it is the fact of Christianity setting up the 

of Christian 

Doctrine. narrow entrance to the highest types of life, of sacrifice, 
atonement and faith that is the great stumbling-block 
to those who look on ethics pure and simple as sufficient. 
However fully true and lofty ethics may be taught in 
Christianity, these are not, as we have seen, its most 
distinctive features, which are unique ; while these have 
much in common with Greek ethics, and with those 
great eastern religions of which we have not spoken. 
We must insist that the foundations of our religion 
are those we have laid down ; and it is these that are 
essentially " Christian ". But, on the other hand, 
however firmly a man may have embraced these doc- 
trines we cannot conceive him to be truly entitled to 
be called a Christian man if he does not in his life 
practise Christian ethics. Without these his life but 
mocks God, and brings on himself a greater condem- 
nation. 

Wundt, our best German psychologist, insists that 
" the merit of moral life is not primarily outward right- 
eousness of life, but a purity of the inward motives ; and 
Christianity ends a conflict which the religions of old 
were never able to terminate — a struggle which is the 
subject of the Antigone of Sophocles. Christianity gave 
the percept of conscience a clear superiority over out- 
ward action." 
Christian True psychological ethics are peculiar to Christianity, 

logical. i.e,, reaching the principles of character from introspec- 

tion ; those of Greece proceeding, as we have seen, in 
the opposite way. In Christianity the mystery and 



CHARACTER AND ETHICS 51 

centre of interest lies in human nature, and not in the 
outside world. 

Rightness of heart and not of mere conduct is the 
essential characteristic of Christian goodness. 

Wundt says the deepening of ethical significance in 
modern use of words takes place by a shift of the 
emphasis from the external to the internal attributes. 

Religion, however, affects conduct from without as 
well by three fresh concepts : First, the love and 
character of God ; second, the eternal world ; and third, 
new social considerations based on new views of life. 
From the first spread of Christianity these new principles 
made their force felt, but it was not until the fourth 
century that Christian ethics were established as a system; 
and, we may say, not until Thomas Aquinas in the 
thirteenth century were they fully developed by the 
schoolmen. 

The seven deadly sins were pride, avarice, anger, 
gluttony, impurity, envy, vainglory. Augustine con- 
structed seven Christian virtues by adopting the four of 
Plato — wisdom, temperance, virtue and justice, and 
adding to them faith, hope and charity. The real 
additions that Christian ethics made to Pagan in the list 
of virtues are obedience (to God), patience, benevolence, 
purity, humility and holiness. Obedience to God's will 
as positive good revealed is quite different from that 
yielded by Socrates to the natural and informal supposed 
law of " God ". Benevolence and love, too, are peculiarly 
Christian virtues. 

The inward spring the Pagan relied upon in his system 



52 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

of ethics was knowledge and wisdom ; in Christian ethics 
it is rather love and faith. 
Modem We have now perhaps said enough to indicate what 

Systems of 

Ethics. additions and alterations Christianity made to the con- 

cepts of Greek ethics. It only remains for us to see 
what modern forms of ethics have been devised by those 
who partly or wholly reject Christianity as a sufficient 
scheme of life. 

These have, of course, a different standpoint from 
the Greek, though many know it not. For the light of 
Christianity has shined, and its principles and objects are 
common knowledge, as well amongst those who reject 
it as amongst those who accept it. The former, there- 
fore, in constructing systems of ethics cannot fail to be 
unconsciously influenced by the new force. Benevolence, 
for instance, is hardly likely to be left out of any system 
of ethics again. 

Some, indeed, would form a principle of life from 
which ethics itself is excluded. They use language like 
the following : " Why should we hamper ourselves with 
the outworn theologies of the past, with the uncertainties 
of religion or the subtleties of the moral code " ? Others 
scorn " neighbour morality " or altruism. A man is to be 
sufficient to himself by his own will and powers. We 
are to have no fear, no worship of God or man, or even 
self, because man rules himself completely. Ethics, 
morals and duties are to be no more. 1 

Personal Hedonism, which says the agreeable is the good, is 

and universal 

Hedonism. perhaps the boldest modern system which may be 

1 Nietzsche and others. 



CHARACTER AND ETHICS 53 

dignified as ethics. It has and has had well-known 
apostles in this country, and those who disagree with. its 
principles (if such they can be called), and with the 
excesses they lead to, believe that it has done harm 
wherever it has been promulgated. Epicureanism, which 
it resembles, had itself loftier aims, and was on a totally 
different footing from this anachronism of the nineteenth 
century. 

To Comte Christianity itself is the consecration of 
egotism. It is undoubtedly primarily individual, and 
exalts the personality of man ; but it does not ex- 
haust itself here ; but in the Saviour's teachings especi- 
ally we get the founding of a " kingdom of heaven," and 
in St. Paul's of a church, of which all the members care 
for one another. 

Those who found their incentives of life in social 
rather than individual interests invented an improvement 
on mere Hedonism (which it will be observed is only per- 
sonal), a Utilitarianism or Universal Hedonism which is 
a considerable advance on that we have condemned. 

These say that the qualities of natural morality are 
founded on the greatest good of the greatest number, as, 
for instance: self-control, truthfulness, justice, kindness 
and morality itself. 

Utilitarianism, therefore, in its highest flight is the 
greatest happiness of the greatest number, and asserts 
that common welfare is morality. 

The utilitarian argues it is good to be happy, that 
happiness is the good ; the perfectionist (another variety) 
argues it is happy to be good, that perfect goodness is 



54 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

happiness. The two are, of course, connected by the 
perception that by maintaining our health and promoting 
our happiness we may discharge a duty to ourselves and 
others, and thus we can purify our desires by identify- 
ing them with moral ends. Hobbes, Hartley, Bentham, 
James Mill, John Stuart Mill, Austin and Bain are all 
for Utilitarian Hedonism, as opposed to intuitive morals 
or acting from a moral sense within. 

In addition to those who connect morals with sensa- 
tion, as Epicurus and Bentham, or with social welfare, as 
Mill and Bain, we have those who connect them with 
intellect, as Cudworth and Clark, and others again with 
the sense of beauty and fitness, as Shaftesbury and 
Hutcheson. 1 

We see from all this that the subject of modern 
philosophy is not the relation of the real and of the 
apparent so much as of the subject and the object, the 
ego and the noxv-ego. The individualist on the one hand 
extends self so as to embrace the universe, while the 
socialist on the other extends the universe so that the 
ego is a mere phenomenon in it. 
Evolutionary Finally, the most modern school of all, which has 

already made that of Mill and Bain out of date, is that 
of Evolutionary Ethics as propounded by Herbert 
Spencer, Darwin, Leslie Stephen and others. 

It may fairly be called Evolutionary Hedonism 
tracing, as it does, the rise and progress of morals to the 
sense of pleasure and pain acted on dimly by animals, 
and gradually perfectly evolved by humanity. 
1 Martineau. 



Hedonism. 



CHARACTER AND ETHICS 55 

It may perhaps be questioned whether we have gained Which is best? 
either in our standpoint or in truth by substituting these 
for Christian ethics. There are many who think we 
have, and to whom Christianity is already effete ; but 
there are others who think from observation that this is 
not so, but that, on the contrary, there never was a time 
when Christian ethics had a greater power, or were more 
practically adopted with the best results ; not, indeed, 
only by those who call themselves Christians, but by 
others, who, while repudiating the doctrines of the faith, 
tacitly admit the superiority of its ethics by adopting 
them more or less in whatever new systems they invent. 



CHAPTER V. 

CHARACTER AND HEREDITY. 

THE Springs of Character — the subject which forms our 
title — will be specially considered in the two following 
chapters and in Chapter X. 
The full Scope As already indicated in Chapter I., it is impossible to 

of Mind must . . . 

be grasped, understand this subject without clearly grasping that 

mind must not, and cannot, be limited to consciousness. 

It is claimed, indeed, by those who would so limit it, that 

"consciousness" is the one quality that is essentially 

psychic. But this surely is too much to claim. For 

instance, wherever we get purpose clearly seen, or moral 

principle or any spiritual quality, we feel equally certain 

that these are not, and cannot be, properties of matter as 

such, but are definitely and distinctly psychical : whether 

they are directly discerned by consciousness at the time, 

or only inferred, while themselves in unconsciousness, 

does not in the least matter. So that consciousness is not 

the only, and probably not the most important, property 

of mind. 

We are obliged to state our position clearly as to 

this, simply because the very difficulty attaching to all 

discussion of character lies mainly in this one fact, that 

(56) 



CHARACTER AND HEREDITY 57 

its home is in the unconscious mind ; and one of the 
most, difficult mental feats is to bring it into conscious- 
ness, a feat, we may add, so difficult that at best it is 
only partially possible, with the result that our character 
is never fully known to ourselves, and only our Maker 
sees truly what we are. This we considered in Chapter 
II. 

"Man's soul," says Emerson, "is a stream whose 
source is hidden. We are, indeed, more than we know, 
and occasionally hear ourselves utter things we know 
not." 

If character then be hidden so deep in the night of 
the unconscious, what shall we say of its springs ? 

We are not here speaking of the springs of conduct, The Springs 

of Character. 

or the motives of our actions ; these are easier to trace, 
being the qualities of our characters. But the question 
is, What are the springs of character itself? We have 
shown in Chapter I. that the word " spring" has two or 
more meanings. It may be a source or a motor power, 
and we have to consider it in both aspects. As a source, 
there are two springs of character ; while as motor power 
there is one — or three in all. McCosh says very well : * 
" Character depends on heredity, surroundings and will ". 
The first two sources have been described as nature and 
nurture, which we will proceed to speak of as heredity 
and habit. The third we consider in Chapter X. 

We all (except Weissman and his followers) believe 
in the inheritance of moral tendencies, and, in short, in 

1 McCosh, Psychology, The Motive Powers, p. 255. 



SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 



Heredity and 
Character. 



No Merit 
attaches to 
Unconscious 
Action. 



the foundations of a character by heredity. The first 
great spring is, therefore, our ancestry; and it is no 
little advantage, in analysing character, that this should 
be traceable : hence the value rightly set on lineage and a 
good stock. 

Now, grafted upon this, we get additions to our 
hereditary character in the shape of new principles. 
These at first form no part of the character y though we 
may act on them. It is only when, by force of repetition, 
they become habitual, instinctive, natural, unconscious, 
and part of ourselves, that we can truly say they form 
fresh springs of character. 

The foundations of character therefore lie in heredity ; 
and all true additions are acquired by habits becoming 
incorporated with the character, so as to become spon- 
taneous and proceed from unconscious sources. 

We must insist on this, for so many of our actions 
form no part of our real character, but are the result of 
passing whims or conscious effort. All that comes from 
character necessarily has an instinctive source in the 
unconscious, since character itself is there, and influences 
and moulds the life unconsciously. 

Now no action that is instinctive, or purely uncon- 
scious, can have merit attaching to it per se, though it 
may possess both wisdom and beauty. 

A character then does not owe its moral value in 
action to either of these two springs of heredity or habit, 
both being alike instinctive and unconscious. We must 
go to the third spring — the source of power and activity 
— like the mainspring of a watch. This spring is our 



CHARACTER AND HEREDITY 59 

conscious will guided by our moral sense. And it is as 
reasonable and responsible beings that merit or demerit, 
therefore, attaches to all our conscious deeds, though 
these may spring from unconscious sources, to which, 
strictly speaking, no merit can attach. 

Let us be sure that our meaning is clear. Responsibility 
and merit do not attach to what we are until that self is 
expressed in conscious action, it may be of thought or 
word or deed. 

Of course the will and the moral sense that guides it 
are themselves, in a way, a part of the character they 
move. It is the element of conscious choice, and the 
exercise of the power of choice, and a free will that alone 
can constitute merit or responsibility. These, therefore, 
must be postulated if we are to be regarded as reasonable 
men and responsible beings. 

A strong character is one with a strong mainspring 
or will. It is not necessarily good ; that is determined by 
the strength of the moral sense. A weak will means a 
weak mainspring, but not necessarily, therefore, a bad 
character. 

It will now be apparent how a character can be 
altered in expression and in merit, though much the 
same in its constitution, by the substitution of a new 
spring of will or power or direction of moral sense. 
" The new nature," spoken of by Christians, is not a 
new character. Character can never thus be changed 
in a moment. It is a new moral sense and a new source 
of will power, so that the character differs in expression 
and in its motor principles. In this and in all other 



6o SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

statements made on such subjects, however, let us ever 
remember that they are probably not absolutely accurate, 
but are merely approximate to the truth. 
Character Character, therefore, depends in the first instance 

may be trans- 
mitted, on heredity. " We may," says Huxley, 1 " veritably say 

this moral and intellectual essence of a man does pass 

over from one fleshly tabernacle to another. In the 

new-born infant the character of the stock lies latent ; 

and the * ego* is a bundle of potentialities." 

Dr. Hill of Cambridge says : 2 " I am glad Dr. Scho- 
field believes in the inheritance of habit. . . . We need 
no longer try to settle the much-discussed question of 
whether acquired characters are transmissible by looking 
out for cases in which gross anatomical changes are 
inherited by children not brought up to their parents' 
tract, but we may assert with confidence that the central 
nervous system, as modified by the deliberate choice of 
the individual, tends to be transmitted to his offspring." 

The main stream of character is due to the formation 
of brain and nerve, as well as mind, from heredity. In 
one sense a new-born child has not so much as yet 
character, but disposition. True character comes later 
on, but disposition and individuality are already its 
possession from heredity. 

" Inheritance," says Furneaux Jordan, " mainly deter- 
mines whether a man shall be capable or incapable, brave 
or cowardly, trustful or suspicious, prudent or reckless, 

1 Huxley, Romanes Lecture, Evolution and Ethics, p. 15. 

2 Dr. Alex. Hill, Inquiry into the Formation of Habit in Man, p. 24, 
Victoria Institute. 



CHARACTER AND HEREDITY 61 

voluble or taciturn." Circumstances come into play 
rather in details and smaller matters. We may say 
heredity supplies the framework or skeleton that gives 
the main outlines, subsequent habits add the flesh, etc., 
while the conscious will animates the whole into re- 
sponsible action. 

There are one or two points about ancestry that may 
be touched on here. 

Hereditary qualities may descend directly, as from Direct and in- 
direct Heredity 
father to son ; or indirectly, as from father to daughter ; and Atavism. 

or by atavism, as from grandfather to grandson ; or be 
transmitted collaterally, as from aunt to nephew. At 
first sight it might be thought that the children of the 
same two parents must all have pretty nearly the same 
characters at the start, and it is from this error that so 
many children are badly brought up, by adopting the 
same regime with all. In the first place the children are 
not merely the offspring of two, but of six at least (for 
we must always consider the four grandparents as in- 
fluencing the child), and, more broadly still, of the stock 
as well as of the parentage from which he is descended. 
In the second place these six "parents" may be mixed The six 
in the child in very varying proportions. One that is 
nearly all maternal grandmother, with a little of the 
father added, will probably be utterly different from his 
brother, who is a compound of both paternal grand- 
parents with a strong dash of his mother. 

Parentage imposes certain definite limitations. 
Carlyle always maintained that two fools never can 
and never will produce a wise child ; and I think, if \q 



aVems. 



62 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

addition the four grandparents are fools, the statement 
will always hold good. 

Furneaux Jordan declares it never happens that a 
child takes after one parent physically and after the 
other in character. We may, indeed, generally assume 
that marked physical likeness goes with mental re- 
semblance. 

Ancestry again is responsible for the " old-fashioned " 
air of most of our children, who only catch up the A.D. in 
which they are living by adding to their hereditary 
equipment by habit. We are really only "up-to-date" 
as a rule in the middle third of our lives, and even this is 
often a great effort. Here and there a child is born 
distinctly in advance of his time, but these are rare 
exceptions. 

When a child is born he is the product, mind and 
body, of the forces of heredity. Not only his body, but 
his mind is deeply impressed with the characters of his 
parentage. His mind is no tabula rasa> but is already 
thickly sown with seeds, some of which are definite 
qualities, but the greater part at first merely tendencies. 
We inherit We are no longer believed as a rule to inherit 

positive virtues or vices any more than actual bodily 
diseases, but rather tendencies to such. 

" It was formerly thought," says Holman, 1 " that 
well-marked peculiarities, physical or mental, in the 
parent were handed on to the child. But this theory 
is now regarded as untenable, and it is held there is 
nothing more than a tendency to develop such qualities.' 

1 Prof. Holman, Introduction to Education, p. 450. 



Tendencies. 



CHARACTER AND HEREDITY 63 

This is not wholly true, but like all else is to be taken 
as approximately so. 

For instance, two faculties at least are seen in every 
child (with the rarest exception) from its earliest years, 
which seem to be largely the foundations of the sub- 
sequent emotions and reason. They are love and the 
sense of justice. All children " love," and all children 
have an instinctive sense of "justice". 

Surely there is nothing strained, when we see these Love and Light 

in the Infant 

two characteristics mirrored in the young child's soul, in Soul. 
discerning the reflection of the Almighty, who is love and 
who is light (or justice). Here the child reproduces as 
two principles in its unconscious mind the fulfilling of 
the whole law : and the stamp or character of the great 
Creator is clearly to be discerned in these qualities in the 
new-born babe. 

The germs of morality are innate in all, and this 
inherent love of justice is nothing less than the dawning 
of the moral sense. The mere discerning of justice 
might be intellectual only, but the love of it clearly 
brings in the moral element. 

Of children a little older Galton says : 1 " The most 
prominent characters in children are energy, sociability, 
love of praise, truthfulness, thoroughness, refinement ". 

From our personal knowledge of children, some of 
these would appear to be rather the result of education 
than to be inherent. We must ever remember the special 
qualities that reside in the child's unconscious mind are 
simply tendencies and qualities of heredity, and it is only 

1 F. Galton, Enquiries into the Human Faculty, p. 58. 



64 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

as the result of (unconscious) education that these become 

definite parts of a formed character. 
Tendencies With regard to tendencies, it is mainly this education 

Virtues or that determines whether they shall develop into vices or 

Vices. .11. , . 

virtues, but we have no time at present to pursue this 
fascinating subject further. A most beautiful sketch of 
hereditary nobility of character, as thus developed, is 
seen in Cedric Errol, Lord Fauntleroy, Mrs. Burnett's 
charming creation ; and even more instructive as a study 
in heredity is her own autobiography in The One I Knew 
Best of All. 

Discerning clearly then that every inherited instinct 
or tendency may be developed into a virtue or degraded 
into a vice, we see the folly of the advice of trusting to 
the child's instinct. It must be watched, not trusted. 

Prof. M'Cunn says: 1 "When a child has an over- 
mastering instinct of acquisitiveness, who will prophesy 
the sequel — thrift or avarice? When he has an un- 
mistakable hunger for praise, is it to end in vainglory or 
a just ' love of the love of other people,' of which love is 
its counterfeit? And is there not for every instinct a 
like parting of the ways?" 

Marked individuality is seen in children in their 
various likes and dislikes. Some children, for instance, 
naturally hate snakes, others love them, and others again 
are indifferent to them. 

Individuality of character in early life is the impress 
of strongly- marked heredity; in late life, of a strong 
will. 

1 Prof. M'Cunn, The Making of Character, p. 29. 



CHARACTER AND HEREDITY 65 

Hereditary qualities may be deeply stamped or only 
faintly impressed ; in the latter case they are later in 
development, and lie hidden in early life. 

Geniuses are the result of some happy combination 
of parentage with some leading quality stamped with 
extraordinary power. 

We recognise this in our expressions. We speak of 
a " born " orator or actor, meaning one whose powers 
are due to his unconscious mind and not to his conscious 
education. 

Mozart says : "If you think how you are to write 
(music) you will never write anything worth hearing. I 
write because I cannot help it ! " And this is every- 
where the language of genius. 

And now one word as to the training of these here- Methods of 

early Training 

dity principles. The best, the most efficacious training 
of character is that which is addressed to the unconscious 
mind, that which is carried on unconsciously ; when 
silently through all the avenues leading to the brain 
within the organ of mind is developed, and the mind 
itself unfolds until it blossoms into consciousness and 
self-consciousness : the teacher, the instructor, being the 
voice of Nature, or rather the voice of God. "It is 
good," says Geo. Macdonald, in Robert Falconer, "that 
children of faculty absorb Nature. Children of faculty 
as distinguished from capacity should not have many 
books. They should be exposed to, and left to absorb 
all the influences of Nature." 

"In those early impressions, of which no one seems 
to be conscious, least of all the child, and which gather 

5 



66 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

up power as the rolling avalanche, the elements are 
collected for the future emotions, moods, etc., that make 
up a greater part of the history of the individual." l 

Every circumstance, indeed, through a whole life has 
some influence on character. 
Evils of artifi- And then, upon the too brief idyllic period of child- 

cial Education. 

hood, conscious education and arbitrary commands 
break in ; often, alas ! unwisely given by thoughtless and 
careless parents ; with the result that the Divine instincts 
of the soul are dwarfed, cabined and confined by short- 
sighted rules and maxims ; the child's mind is gradually 
lowered and disillusioned till it reaches the current level 
of its A.D., and becomes hard-headed and practical. 

As little as possible is left to spontaneity in this 
utilitarian age; everything has an "end," and the whole 
round of life is hedged in on every side by artificial 
barriers. Even the artless games of childhood become 
merely mechanical means for physical recuperation or 
mental relaxation. " Must we always," asks one rather 
pathetically, "be doing our duty? May we not some- 
times take a holiday from being positively good ? May 
we ever play for the sake of mere enjoyment, and not 
for recreation or the ' good it will do ' ? " 

One great point in favour of unconscious education is 
that it never interferes with the happiness of child-life 
but increases it ; and this is not such a small matter as it 
seems. Conscious education is needed, but, unwisely 
conducted, it is often a very painful process. 

We must ever recognise the two divisions of mind, 
1 Dr. L. Waldstein, The Sub-Conscious Self, p. 47. 



CHARACTER AND HEREDITY 67 

and remember that the springs (sources), the founda- 
tions, roots and principles of character lie deep in the 
unconscious ; the flowers and fruits and actions being 
seen in the conscious. During the whole period of ah early 

Education is 

infancy and childhood, whether we know it or not, the Unconscious. 
education that is of most value to us is that which is 
received and stored by the unconscious mind ; and it is 
this education on which the future character so largely 
depends, for through it the tendencies of heredity can 
be directed and modified. Herbert Spencer says : " A 
man is more like the company he keeps than that 
from which he is descended ". In short, unconscious 
education is more powerful than heredity ; conscious 
education is not. 

No doubt fundamental changes of hereditary qualities 
are very rare. They may follow severe, and sometimes 
unsuspected, head injuries and other great shocks. 

Characters appear to change often when they are 
only developed. The slow development of hereditary 
tendencies often looks very like a radical change of 
character. 

Sometimes heredity gets undue credit for qualities of some" Here- 
character. " What is often called heredity is simply the ties really due 

f t • 1 /• 7 7 • • >-f.7 to ear ly En- 

expression of a sub-conscious self, the beginning of which vironment. 
can be traced to early childhood, when the actions of the 
parents and their example are sub-consciously perceived, 
and, by their conscious repetition, form fundamental 
impressions." 1 

"Much is often put to the credit of 'original sin/ 

1 Dr. L. Waldstein, The Sub-Conscious Self, p. 19. 



68 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

inherited by the child, that is really the avoidable result 
of vicious banes and bad examples in early childhood." * 
Nature is often thus credited with the results of nurture. 

As we have said, in the hereditary qualities we do not 
so much get positive good and evil as tendencies (often, 
it is true, with a distinct bias), but which can be traced 
in one direction or the other. 

"Virtue," says Leslie Stephen, 2 "is rather the 
organising of the instincts than their extirpation." 
There are, indeed, few tendencies that are in themselves 
so positively and irredeemably evil as to require actual 
extirpation. There may be, and often are, characteristics 
of this nature, but they were " not hereditary in their 
present form. Some bad education has developed into 
evil what might have been a quality for good." 

We will pass on to the great supplementary spring 
of character that is found in the force of habit. 

1 Prof. M'Cunn, Making of Character, p. 9. 
•Leslie Stephen, Science of Ethics, p. 302. 



CHAPTER VI. 

CHARACTER AND HABIT. 
We now turn to the important relations between habit Effectsof Habit 

on Character. 

and character, and we find that they are twofold. In the 
first place the original tendencies of heredity, of which 
we have just spoken, can be modified for good or evil ; 
and in the second, new principles of character can be 
added by the force of habit. " Sow an act, reap a habit ; 
sow a habit, reap a character; sow a character, reap a 
destiny." We may well and truly, therefore, regard 
habit as the supplementary spring or source of character. 

Now, habit in thought is as well and truly formed as 
habit in action. 

Consciousness necessarily attends at first every act of 
reason ; but when the act has been repeated a thousand 
times and becomes instinctive, it is performed uncon- 
sciously, and a habit is the result. 

There are one or two interesting points in the forma- 
tion of a habit. In the first place the action must never 
be varied. Attention in the formation of a habit also 
seems greatly to deepen its impression on the brain, and 
make it much more easy to establish ; and we must 

(69) 



70 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

remember it is much easier to form habits we like than 
those we do not. 

There are many psychologists who, resolutely 
denying unconscious mind action, relegate all processes 
of thought, which by continuance have become habitual, 
to material agencies ; and deny altogether their mental 
character, simply because they are unconscious. This 
is well answered by Bastian : 1 " That which is realisable 
now may after a time cease to be so ; and shall we cease 
to call a given nerve action (or rather its results) psychical, 
when by frequent repetition it has become so habitual 
that it no longer arouses consciousness ? " 

Stout says : 2 " Where the habit is sufficiently formed 
to subserve its purpose, consciousness retires from the 
scene, like an artist whose task is done ". 

To this M'Cunn adds : 3 " This doesn't, however, imply 
that the habit has become wholly a thing of physical 
automatism. It would be a lame conclusion to prolonged 
moral effort that a habit became a mere thing of nerves 
and muscles. The fact is that the psychical roots of the 
habit are not cut, but only buried." 
Value of Habit All the minor moralities of life may thus be made 
easy and habitual to the child. He may form the habits 
of being courteous, prompt, punctual, neat, considerate ; 
and practise these virtues without conscious effort. We 
thus can modify and add to the hereditary disposition 
of the child, until it becomes the character of the man. 

1 C. Bastian, Brain as an Organ of Mind, p. 523. 
1 Analytical Psychology, G. F. Stout, vol. i., p. 265. 
*The Making of Character, M'Cunn, p. 43. 



CHARACTER AND HABIT 71 

The first act is from motives in an undetermined 
character. The second act has the motive for it streng- 
thened by being a repetition, until at length the motive 
becomes unconscious, and forms a permanent factor in 
the character. Up to a certain point our character is 
formed for us by heredity, beyond this it is formed by 
us through habit. 

Character is thus, as we have seen, mainly the sum 
total of habit ; and as the Alps are the sedimentary de- 
posits of the silent seas of the past, so character is 
formed from the sedimentary deposits of thousands of 
acts and experiences in the unconscious past. These 
acts and repetitions arise, as we shall see, from our 
surroundings and our ideals. Still we must remember 
that bundles of habits are not in themselves character ; 
for this organic unity and co-ordination is required. We 
must well understand that until the principle underlying 
an act has by repetition become instinctive, and thus 
unconscious, it cannot be truly said to form a part of our 
character. Care in Latin pronunciation will not pro- 
duce care in cycling in a careless character, until, by 
repetition, carefulness itself has become instinctive. 
Then it appears in all pursuits and forms a part ofHabitisa 

Spring of 

character. In short, there comes a period when I no character, 
longer possess a certain virtue, but it possesses me. 
When this is so, it is my assured property ; and I can 
pass on to attain higher forms of virtue, and it is thus I 
grow into 6 <raxf>p(ov — the perfectly tempered man who is 
the product of organised habit. 

The fixity of a virtuous disposition which is the 



7a SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

height of moral character is the result of habit, and 
" the habitually honest man does what is right, not 
consciously because he ' ought,' but with simple satisfac- 
tion ; and is ill at ease till it is done". 1 

Morality should thus early in life be made a firm 
habit, for indefinite instincts soon cease in all circum- 
stances to be reliable guides, and require raising (where 
of value) into definite habits. We must remember, how- 
ever, that " the establishment of organised habit is never 
of itself enough to ensure the growth of an enlightened 
moral conscientiousness " ; 2 for growth, more than habit, 
is needed. And here we may remark, as M'Cunn has 
pointed out, that while moral habits can be as freely and 
surely formed as physical habits, this must be effected 
by the repetition of psychical states and not by repro- 
ducing the merely physical acts. The outward action 
alone will never form a moral virtue, nor can virtuous 
habits themselves be merely mechanical. 

The connection of ethics with action and not with 
theory is physiologically invaluable, as all acts tend to 
consolidate ethics into character ; and it is moreover an 
immense gain to be able to relegate the lower actions to 
habit, so as to be free to develop the higher instincts. 
The real value of the automatic is that it liberates the 
mind from lesser things for fresh conscious processes of 
a more important nature. 

There is, however, another side of habit that we must 
look at to arrive at the balance of truth. 

1 Herbert Spencer, Data of Ethics, sec. 7, p. 46. 
»Dr. Royce of Harvard, U.S.A. 



CHARACTER AND HABIT 73 

The sense of duty or " ought " diminishes as morality 
is practised. The first performance of a duty is directly 
because of " ought " — the moral sense. After a while it 
becomes habitual, and very likely a pleasure, and at last 
it is performed unconsciously, wholly or in part. Take, 
for instance, the repetition of a set form of prayer or 
saying grace at meals. 

Now, it is obvious that no real moral value attaches Moral Value 

. does not attach 

to an action or even a motive which is wholly uncon- to Unconscious 
scious. As therefore moral acts become apparently 
mechanical habits, they lose the moral value that 
attached to them. We thus see again that character as 
a whole lies in the unconscious, and that any merit 
attaching to it arises from the exercise of the conscious 
will that calls it into activity. We will look at this 
subject further in Chapter X. 

Again, habits may become chains of slavery and Dangers of 
barriers to progress. 

The way stationary lives avoid progressing is by 
doing nothing whatever outside a fixed circle of habit 
that has become almost instinctive. We all have a 
tendency to become " recurring decimals " ; for progress 
means effort, whereas habit means ease. 

No character can be automatic where there is any 
progress. And habits need not be bad to be hindrances. 
Moral habits of a narrow order may establish great 
barriers to after progress. It is a great danger, 
therefore, for a mind to become automatic at a low 
level. 

In our manufacturing cities we are said to make 



74 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

everything but men ; that is, we make lives full of 
bundles of habits at a low level, and as near machines as 
human beings can become. 

On the other hand, habits are difficult to stop when 
once they have been formed. The persistent pursuit of 
an object always involves the danger of not being able 
to leave off the habit of pursuit when the object is gained, 
as, for instance, in the pursuit of riches. 

Of course a bad habit is a terrible thing when fixed, 
and the moral consciousness is soon blunted to right and 
wrong ; so that a man may get such a habit of lying or 
swearing as to lose all sense of evil. 

Every act of sin makes the second act appear less 
sinful and easier to commit. Habit is thus a fearful 
power when enlisted on the side of wrong. 

Habit lessens pleasure or pain, and when fixed 
almost abolishes it. 

We lose pleasure in games and pursuits as soon as 
they become fixed habits, as with professionals ; and a 
continual sufferer soon complains less as the pain be- 
comes deadened by continuance. 

Habit may induce error, as at the beginning of a new 
year, when for some time the old year continues to be 
written ; or when dressing for dinner the watch is wound 
up as if going to bed. 

From all these instances we see that habits are such 

great powers that a most watchful eye should be kept 

over their acquisition, at first by the parent and later by 

the individual himself. 

How Habits We now turn to consider the two means by which 

are Acquired. 



CHARACTER AND HABIT 75 

habits are easily and naturally acquired ; and the first is 
by our environment or our surroundings. 

As long ago as B.C. 450 Hippocrates believed in the 
influence of environment in determining character ; so 
that we are speaking here of no new idea. 

Life is indeed the school of character, because life to 
each man means that with which he comes in contact — 
his surroundings between which and himself there is 
incessant action and reaction. 

A child cannot fail to bear the stamp of the atmo- 
sphere its mind has unconsciously breathed for the first 
few years of its life. 

" Life and health are largely acted on (unconsciously) 
by agents immaterial and psychical. They are the 
essential parts of the education from which springs the 
character, etc." 1 

" Nothing exerts so great an influence on the psychical Value of 

t 1 iiii«. «,. Environment 

organism as the moral atmosphere breathed by it. The 
composition of that atmosphere is therefore of funda- 
mental importance ; and this education is Nature's educa- 
tion." a 

In a certain environment all the weeds of character 
flourish, another develops all the flowers. If we cannot 
change our environment when it is injurious, we must 
definitely resist it, if we are to be saved from bad habits. 

We can make our environment as well as letting it 
make us. Our rooms, and particularly those we occupy 
most, represent the characteristics of their occupants. 

*Dr. J. Pollock, Book of Health, p. 520. 

* W. B. Carpenter, Mental Physiology, 4th edition, p. 353. 



76 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Some, however, construct their environment out of all 
sorts of odds and ends they can find, like a caddis worm, 
or a bird when building its nest ; while others find suit- 
able environments that fit them, ready made, like a 
hermit crab. A strong character shapes its own environ- 
ment, a weaker one is formed by it. It is in early life 
and in poverty that our environments are mostly made 
for us ; in adult and easy lives they are mostly made by 
us ; and in either case there can be no doubt of the 
value to physical and mental health of being in perfect 
harmony with our surroundings. 

The family is Nature's great moral school ; and real 
character is mostly formed at home. The relationship of 
husband and wife is a powerful former of character, 
especially in the early years of married life. Parents, 
not only mothers, but fathers also, have immense 
influence on the characters of their children. 
Contrast be- Herbart says i 1 "If the life of a family is permeated 

tween Family . . . .,, . 

Life and insti- by a noble piety, a sincere religious faith will take root 
in the heart of the children. To the child the family 
should be the symbol of the order in the world ; from 
the parents one should derive the characteristics of the 
Deity. The child's ideas of the Heavenly Father are 
moulded unconsciously by the earthly one. The 
mother's tender care, the father's kind seriousness, the 
relationship of the family, must exist in all purity and 
worthiness before the child's ingenuous eyes, because he 
judges only what he observes ; because what he sees is 

1 F. Herbart, Science of Education, 2nd edit., p. 71. 



CHARACTER AND HABIT 77 

to him the only thing possible, the pattern for his 

imitation." 

Other environments are those of school, companions 
and friends, locality, country, profession, etc. 

We may note here the enormous and well-known 
effects that institutions, reformatories, homes (so-called), 
etc., have on the character, and especially amongst the 
young. We have elsewhere spoken of the effects of the \ 
dietaries at these places ; but apart from this, the influence \ 
of the life, the routine, the companionships, the sense of | 
being a unit rather than a loved personality, have all the 
depressing effects on character that shade has on a 
growing plant. All movements in favour of remodelling 
homes for children on the basis of small homes, and thus 
reproducing natural family life, are of the greatest value 
in improving the character. 

A solitary life, such as the monastic, is not good for 
the development of character, as it merely tends to 
emphasise the stronger features, whether of vice or 
virtue, but does not lead to growth. 

The force of the professions on character is most Effects of Pro- 

fessional Life 

marked. The finished product differs in toto from the on Character. 

raw material. Take six brothers and let one enter the 

navy at twelve, another the army at eighteen, another 

the law at twenty, and another medicine at seventeen. 

another a merchant's office, and let the sixth loaf about 

at home, and then carefully analyse all their characters 

at thirty-five. 

You will find the sea stamped on the first, seen not 
alone in his tanned cheek and somewhat rolling gait, 



78 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

but morally through and through, down to the very 
depths of his unconscious being. In fact he himself is 
largely unconscious of how much he shows it. You see 
it in his frank eye, in his nautical language, in his 
freedom of speech, in his code of morality, in his virtues 
and in his vices, in what may be called the very shape 
of his thoughts. 

The army man again will be quite a different product. 
He will be stiffer and less easy and more precise. His 
bearing (we hope) will show his drill ; but it is not his 
body alone, but his character, his very being, that has 
been drilled. That, indeed, is the essential difference 
between the regular and the volunteer. Both have got 
drilled bodies ; but the drill has reached the character in 
the former, while the latter is still a civilian at heart. 

The barrister, with the intellectual and casuistic train- 
ing he has received, will doubtless look down on his 
two brothers from his forensic height, and will show how 
his profession has touched his character, but to a decidedly 
less extent than the other two, the environment not 
having been so constant or so characteristic. The doctor 
will be more changed in character from the habit of 
looking at people from the inside, and the constant 
balancing of cause and effect. His responsibilities and 
the continual need of a good manner will also have 
left indelible marks. The medical profession is instruc- 
tive to study because men can enter it at any age, 
and it is easy to see that where medicine has been taken 
up late in life (after thirty) the character itself is 
much less affected. The man is not an engrained doctor 



CHARACTER AND HABIT 79 

like the man who began at seventeen. The merchant 

will perhaps be least altered in himself, the atmosphere 

he has breathed being less specialised ; and the loafer 

will have steadily deteriorated, most of his hereditary 

potentialities being by now enlisted on the side of evil. 

So great is the power of our callings on our characters ! 

Having seen the effect on character of a definite Effects of a 

Working- 
training for a definite profession, let us take the uncon- man's Life on 

Character. 

scious training of character in an ordinary working-man 
— say, for example, the difference between a gardener 
with wages of 18s. a week and a coal miner with wages 
of 36s. The two occupations contrast as follows : The 
first is safe, the second dangerous ; the first is in the 
light and open air, the second in darkness and confined 
space; the first life is equable but poorly paid, the 
second presents violent contrasts but is highly paid ; 
the first man is ever with Nature and studies all her 
harmonious and natural progression and alterations, the 
second is with Nature, but cannot see her or her opera- 
tions, and regards her rather as a dangerous foe to be 
mastered. If two brothers take up these two occupa- 
tions for twenty years, their characters will probably be 
formed somewhat on the following lines : The gardener 
will be slow, patient, genial and gentle, like the Nature 
with whom he is ever in contact. He will be careful, 
because poor ; he will read little, because he reads 
Nature's book all day ; he will be equable and com- 
paratively free from excesses, because his life is free 
from contrasts and dangers. The miner, on the other 
hand, will have an uneven character, will be reckless, 



80 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

prone to excesses in pleasure, passion, sport, etc., 
because his occupation and his life present the most 
violent contrasts and expose him to great dangers. He 
will be extravagant also, because he is well paid ; he 
reads more and is more discontented ; his home is more 
luxurious, as he loves to emphasise the contrast between 
it and his work ; at times, therefore, he may develop a 
passion for flowers, exceeding any gardener, because of 
his gloomy toil. His character is stronger and more 
forcible and wilful from the rugged and dangerous diffi- 
culties he has daily to overcome. 1 
Effects of Let us now see how one character affects another; for 

on Character, above all we are ever influencing one another, and our 
greatest influence is that we exercise unconsciously. Our 
minds cast shadows just like our bodies, and daily and 
hourly those shadows are falling upon others for good or 
for evil. This one fact alone proclaims the overwhelming 
importance of character in social life. The reason we 
feel one man's presence and not another's is indeed as 
simple and unerring as the law of gravity. A presence 
is felt in exact proportion to the strength of its character. 
" O Iole, how did you know Hercules was a god ? '' 
M Because I was content the moment my eyes fell on him 
— he conquered whether he stood or walked or sat." 

Character is like those bodies we call ferments, which 

1 At a mining village Justice Grantham has lately spoken of, where 
the scenery is lovely, near Conisbro' Castle, the wages are high and the 
hours short, but the men lead Hves of shameful degradation, drinking, 
gambling and neglecting their children. The material prosperity and the 
moral savagery shatter every theory of the elevation of the people based 
on mere material good. 



CHARACTER AND HABIT 81 

have the power of inducing changes in other bodies 
without undergoing any change themselves. Ptyalin, 
for instance, the ferment in the saliva, changes any 
amount of starch into sugar without undergoing any 
change itself ; and so certain characters have such power 
that in their presence all the starch in a man disappears, 
and sugar takes its place. And, again, just as ferments 
are of two sorts, those that build up and those that de- 
compose, so one character strengthens while another 
weakens and disintegrates every other with which it comes 
into contact. Some men are like spiritual ozone : one 
breathes a new life in their presence. Others, on the 
contrary, are like germ-laden sewer gas : not only noisome, 
but infectious. In short, like produces like. Men of 
good principles produce others, and men of evil likewise. 
Each multiplies after its own likeness. 

" Men of character," says Emerson, " are the con- 
science of the society to which they belong. And to 
produce all this effect no word need be spoken, no deed 
done — the presence often suffices. " 

" In silent company with another," says Maeterlink, 1 
" the character is often deeply formed. The truth," he 
adds, " cannot often be uttered in words, but it can be 
learnt in silence." 

Having thus considered a little the power of surround- ideals and 

Character. 

ings, and of the influence we have over one another, let 
us look at another way of forming good habits, and that 
is by following ideals. 



1 Maeterlink, trans, by A. Sutro, The Treasure of the Humble, 
6 



8a SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Character is never most benefited by introspection 
and searching for springs of conduct in our unconscious 
mind that were meant to be left unseen ; but rather by 
objective methods : just as facility in playing the violin 
is not gained by a study of the muscles concerned, but 
by practising music. This is the value of ideals, which 
form at the same time an object in life and a standard for 
moral sense. The word "ought" supposes an ideal 
standard. 

Nil adtnirari, or the despising of all ideals, is indeed 
a doctrine of devils. 

A chief factor in the development of character is the 
power of forming and following ideals, rather than the 
impulse to be or the effort of becoming better. 

It is the imitation, conscious or unconscious, of one's 
ideal that becomes a habit, and thus forms and reforms 
and transforms the character. The generality of ideals 
is seen in such common phrases as " The dream of my 
life," " The expression of one's ideal," etc. 

An anonymous writer in Maanillan, 1882, in " Studies 
in Psychology," notices that "after being raised to a 
higher rank (to a baronetcy or peerage) the whole be- 
haviour subtilely and unconsciously changes in accordance 
with it ". This is also the case in a minor degree with 
lesser standards of fashion ; and as in the social world, 
so in the moral. 
The Moral The moral sense cannot act without some sort of 

ide»b. tOWar * standard ; and, indeed, an ideal is needed for the very ex- 
istence of morality ; the best character being that where 
all the energies are directed towards the highest ideals. 



CHARACTER AND HABIT 83 

One's character becomes similar to those whom we 
love, admire and respect, simply because in trying to be 
like them we unconsciously form habits to resemble 
them. 

Our instincts and character are moulded by ideals, 
but not by passing pleasures ; indeed, our will seems 
fulfilled in an ideal in a way it never is by pleasure. 
This ideal may not be a matter of conscious choice, but 
may grow up with us from obscure origin. 

The measure of a man is truly the measure of his 
vision, that is, of the ideal before his eye. 

" To have the eye evil," says Ruskin, " is more than 
being blind ; just as the whole body being full of dark- 
ness is darkness in me, and is more than my being in 
darkness." Such is the case where corrupt ideals fill 
the vision. 

Loss of faith in ideals is also destructive of character a lost ideal 

is Disastrous. 

and stops its growth ; moreover, an ideal not followed is 
soon lost. 

The substitution of an inferior ideal for a superior is 
the greatest moral calamity a man can suffer. We must 
never lower our standards in order more easily to reach 
them ; and, indeed, an impossible ideal or standard is 
always the most elevating to the character. The im- 
possibility of reaching it preserves humility, while at the 
same time it ensures constant progress. 

Without an ideal a man may exist, but cannot be 
said to live. 

The majority of men have an ideal self they try to 
realise. Harmony between this ideal self and the real 



84 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

self brings peace of mind, while discord brings distress 
and remorse. 

This ideal self is a compound of the ideals before 
the man. Its main feature is formed by the principal 
object for which he lives, but in minor matters standards 
of perfection are also set up in deportment, dress, personal 
habits, etc. Thus the coster may live for an ideal waist- 
coat or a barrow drawn by a donkey, a flower girl for a 
Sunday hat with real ostrich feathers, and so on. 
Scale of ideals. The general ideals before men are as various as their 
personality. At the bottom come those rare cases where 
the ideal is absolutely evil — where it is said : " Evil be 
thou my good ". Some have questioned whether such 
characters exist, but of this we fear there is no doubt. 

Then come those with morbid ideals. As a medical 
man I know what it is to have even disease made an 
ideal. 

Then we enter the large class with very low aims, 
such as those to whom money, riches, sensual pleasures 
and pleasure generally are the end of life. 

Of all such aims the end is fixed. There are two 
paths for every man to choose : the path of duty or of 
pleasure, of self-denial or of self-gratification, of self- 
control or licence ; and the one is the path of life and 
the other the path of death. It is very curious, more- 
over, to notice that when we pursue pleasure we feel and 
know that we are slaves, but when we pursue loftier 
ideals we feel free. 
Negative Going a little higher, we get those whose ideal may 

be said to be a negative one. Their object is " To do no 



CHARACTER AND HABIT 85 

harm," or " To pay their way," that is, keep out of debt, 
and with this their lives are fulfilled. 

Another aim is magnitude, or, as we say now, 
"breaking the record ". The ideal is to be the largest 
grocer or biggest draper, or the richest landowner. 
Akin to this class, though distinctly higher in moral 
aim, are those who would be best rather than biggest ; 
quality being valued rather than quantity. The ideal 
may be to become the top of a school class, the highest 
in rank, the best cricketer or golf player, the first in his 
profession, and so on. 

Higher still, and the first where self in some shape or Social 

Ideals. 

form ceases to be the direct object, is the class whose 
ideal consists in providing well for their families, in social 
aims, in utilitarianism, in the greatest good for the greatest 
number, it being remembered that " social " includes both 
duty in social morality and personal duty, while the 
greatest good of the greatest number includes personal 
good, family good, social good and universal good. 

Above these again are those who pursue abstract 
virtues, and amongst them were the higher Greek philo- 
sophers. To these the ideal may be duty or patriotism, 
or honour or virtue, or temperance or justice, or character 
itself as the end of life, or wisdom or truth. With regard 
to these two latter, it has been well said that " while the 
aim of education is wisdom, that of the wise man is truth". 
Highest of all we think are those most wholly altruistic, Christian 

Ideals. 

whose ideal is self-sacrifice for the happiness of others, 
and above all the pleasing of God and the imitation of 
Christ. We think that, whether a man be a Christian or 



86 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

not, he will agree that the highest ideal before a creature 
is to do the will of his Creator. 

We can have noble and lofty ideals apart from 
Christianity : but there can be no doubt we have the 
highest with it. We will add one word as to the con- 
nection of happiness and pleasure with ideals. Seneca 
said : " We do not love virtue because it gives us pleasure ; 
but it gives us pleasure because we love it ". The 
evScufiovia of Aristotle — the end of being— is by no means 
mere happiness. To pursue happiness as such is almost 
invariably to defeat one's object. Perfection, not 
happiness, is the end of life. Nevertheless it may be 
said goodness and happiness go hand in hand. Happi- 
ness indeed is largely found in the means used to attain 
the end in view. For instance, if the object be to pro- 
vide food for the table, the sport itself affords more 
pleasure than the food. Just, then, as goodness and 
happiness go together, so in the highest morality goodness 
and wisdom are not divorced ; the highest morals go 
with the highest intellects — but the morals must come 
first. 
Summary. We have thus seen in the brief survey of the two 

sources of character we have traced in these two chapters 
that the fundamental spring is undoubtedly heredity ; 
but that in it we get rather the material of which 
character is made than the character itself, and that 
for the forming and moulding of these tendencies, as 
well as for the introduction of fresh instinctive principles, 
habit is needed. We have considered the mighty force 
at our disposal ki this great principle ; and have seen 



CHARACTER AND HABIT 87 

further that moral habits, voluntarily adopted at first, 
become also fixed, a very part of ourselves, as they 
become instinctive in the unconscious mind. We have 
also pointed out that the environment around us and the 
ideal before us, are the two means by which habits of 
thought and conduct are fostered, to a large extent 
unconsciously. We may consider then that thus far we 
have been occupied with the formation of character. 
Our next duty will be to consider its growth. 



CHAPTER VII. 

CHARACTER AND GROWTH. 
Growth and In the body we distinguish clearly between growth and 

Development. 

development, or increase in quantity and quality. The 
former continues for a definite period, terminating about 
the twenty-first year, and after then no growth takes 
place. But development still goes on rapidly, and may 
continue (in the brain, at any rate) down to a very late 
period in life. 

Growth depends, of course, on food and exercise, 
but they are not its sole cause, for we continue to eat 
and walk after twenty-one, but no longer grow. Growth 
is due to an inherent power in the body, which is a part 
of the mystery of life itself. 

Development is not a power or force in the body like 
growth, but is purely the result of use and exercise. 
" Who by reason of use have their senses exercised to 
discern both good and evil." 1 An arm is developed by 
playing a violin, a brain by the study of Greek, both 
brain (cerebellum) and body by bicycle-riding, and so 
on. 

We do not see at present that we are in a position 

1 Heb. v. 14. 
(88) 



CHARACTER AND GROWTH 89 

to draw a clear distinction between growth and develop- 
ment in character. It will be best therefore to under- 
stand growth in this case to include development, if 
indeed it does not wholly consist of it The difficulty 
is immense in examining a character to decide what 
elements are entirely new, being incorporated by habit, 
and which consist of hereditary potentialities properly 
developed. Nor indeed is the matter from one point of 
view of supreme importance : suffice it to know that we 
have these two springs. We will therefore turn now 
to consider by what means character is developed or 
"grows". 

We may remark, first, that with development in 
character always goes repression. The restraining is as 
needed as the fostering. The one without the other fails 
to a great extent in its object. Growth of character in 
humanity owes its almost infinite possibilities to the 
apparent limitless capacity man possesses in contradis- 
tinction to the rest of the animal kingdom, combined with 
the power of modification that attaches to a character 
whose greatest factor is reason, as contrasted with mental 
powers chiefly guided by instinct 

But, in spite of this, some people (as we have seen in stationary- 
Chapter VI.) apparently neither grow nor develop. They 
eat, drink and sleep, absolutely free from the stimulus 
of progressive desires — not only consciously, but in fact. 

It seems incredible that any can realise they are 
leading lives at such a low level and be satisfied with 
them. We may rest assured no life at a high level is 
non-progressive. "Is it possible," says Shakespeare of 



go SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

a fool (Parolles), " that he should know that (£*., c what ') 
he is, and be that {i.e., ' what ') he is ? " 

A thoroughly self-indulged childhood with every 
want forestalled, at a low animal level, is often a death- 
blow to progress, and the foundation of a bad character. 

No character can be good that is not ever improving ; 
and this involves effort, for mental struggle is the first 
law of progress. Where intellect is deficient, therefore, 
progress is necessarily at an end. Maudsley observes : 
" Most madmen have few ideas ; most have simple feel- 
ings, and the coarsest desires and ways ". 
How does How, then, does character grow, and how does it 

grow? develop? Character grows like the body, mainly by 

food and exercise. Its food is the ideas presented to 
the mind, its exercise lies in directing life through the 
various circumstances around. 

Character is also developed by life generally, by 
actions, by principles, by objects, by changes, by other 
characters, by education direct and indirect, or conscious 
and unconscious, and by many other means. 

The watchword of character is St. Augustine's famous 
ladder, " I am — I know — I can — I ought — I will " ; here 
we get successively self-consciousness, intellect, free will, 
moral sense and purpose ; a beautiful and natural suc- 
cession. Progressive movement of mind is as essential 
to healthy mental life as it is to physical, and this move- 
ment should be upward — altiora peto : though we are 
inclined to think that any movement is better than none 
at all. 

In stagnant minds, as in stagnant water, everything is 



CHARACTER AND GROWTH gi 

a miliar, and everything is known, for we are stationary ; 
in a moving mind, as in a moving river, much is ever new 
and much is forgotten (the things that are behind), for we 
are ever advancing. Consistency also is not a quality of 
progressive characters. If it be made an end, there is 
an end of all progress, for consistency of action is im- 
possible, as higher and ever higher standards of life 
rise up before us. There are of course two consistencies : 
there is the consistency of my actions with my character, 
which is of value ; and there is the consistency of my 
present character or actions with my past, and it is this 
that we speak of as a bar to progress. 

Rejoice that man is hurled 

From change to change unceasingly, 

His soul's wings never furled. 

Truly wise we cannot be, unless our wisdom is con- 
stantly developing from childhood to death. 

The earlier in life the main principles of character 
are developed and fixed, the more are they likely to 
resist the stress and strain of later years. The last 
principle implanted is ever the first to go, " Nascent " 
virtues, therefore, recently acquired, should be guarded 
against undue temptation. 

A character, of course, like a body, may not grow Rates of Char- 

, . T , . _ acter Growth. 

regularly. It may, as we have seen, never grow from 
childhood ; it may cease at any time, and recommence 
again with some new idea or ideal after years ; or it may 
retrogress, and be ruined or atrophied. 

The growth of character, as a rule, is most rapid in 
early years : it is most rapid amidst adverse and chang- 



92 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

ing surroundings : it is most rapid when in absorbing 
pursuit of some striking and loved ideal : it is rapid when 
intellect, emotion, moral sense and will are all pulling in 
one direction ; though sometimes more rapid still when 
emotion pulls the other way, and requires to be over- 
come. Changing surroundings, personal and social, 
changing standards in morals and religion, and changing 
objects and pursuits, all affect character for better or 
worse. With all characters, as with the vegetable world, 
there is a spring-time of growth, a summer of flowering, 
and an autumn of fruitfulness. 

Character, under certain circumstances, may de- 
teriorate as rapidly as it may grow. It deteriorates 
most rapidly when the conscious will, as well as un- 
conscious forces, are enlisted on the side of evil, and 
the moral sense is effectually deadened. 

Here we may point out a danger ; and that is, that 
neither character itself, nor its growth, should ever be the 
actual aim of life. Indeed, the aim should never be 
subjective good, though that is the sure result when the 
aim is objective good. Character grows most rapidly 
when least occupied with itself. If our objects are right, 
and our ideals the best, there should be no needless 
anxiety about growth : that will take care of itself. In 
this book, however, we have to examine much that 
should not constantly occupy our minds. Many of the 
finest characters have never given a thought to character, 
or been conscious they have grown at all. It is not the 
tall youth, but the short one, that is ever thinking about 
growth. But this, alas ! does not make him taller. 



CHARACTER AND GROWTH 93 

Good growth, of course, cannot take place from a 
poor stock ; and between the lowest torpid natures at one 
end, and the high and responsive natures at the other, 
there lie endless varieties. Natural growth of character 
must be limited by the heredity and stock ; and educa- 
tion is often blamed for producing defects which, after 
all, it only reveals. Herbert Spencer observes : " By 
no political alchemy can we get golden conduct out of 
leaden instincts. But the instincts can be changed, 
fresh grafts can be introduced as we have seen upon the 
stock, the whole tree can be trained in a new direction, and 
golden conduct made to flow from a golden character." 

Let us now consider some details as to growth. The Details of 

Growth. 

growing itself is the point of moral value, the becoming ; 
when we have " become," and continue to " be " because 
we "are," merit as such ceases, though there may be 
everything to admire. We need not pause to prove this, 
for we have already touched on the necessary connection 
of moral value with voluntary action. 

The more habitual our virtues the less conscious are 
we of them, until, when they really become a part of 
our character, they almost sink out of sight 

We have already pointed out that it is better to grow 
by doing good than to make cultivation of character a 
direct object. At the same time we should cultivate 
honest dealing with ourselves, and a certain amount of 
introspection is needed to avoid self-deception. Criti- 
cism should be based on the desire to discover truth, and 
an earnest care to be consistent in thought and fact. A 
sound self-critic is sure to progress. 



94 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Besides, therefore, the emotions and will and intellect 
being drawn out by objective ideals, and by active life in 
the pursuit of good, it is well that the attention be also 
kept on the repression of evil in self. 

Sacrifice is an essential in progress. To gain life we 
must lose it, to live we must die. Self-surrender in 
obedience, and for others' good, is a chief means by 
which development of character is accomplished. 

Self-denial is a fundamental characteristic, and yet 
may not in itself be for good — a money-seeker has inces- 
santly to practise it — all depends on why it is practised. 
Courage, in the same way, may be used for evil as well 
as good. 

Without these two characteristics, however, self-denial 
and courage, the character will not progress much for 
either good or evil. 

Godliness with contentment is great gain, but the 
contentment meant is rather "with such things as we 
have " than " with such characters as we are " ; and it 
is doubtful how far " contentment," per se, is to be culti- 
vated as a virtue. Truly, it brings peace, but with it 
stagnation, and there is a healthy discontent that is a 
necessary factor in all progress. The one who moves is 
ever seeking, and is never anchored to what he has 
found. He is not yet satisfied, and in the deepest sense 
he is not yet content. He has not yet attained, he is not 
yet what he would be. So far from staying morally 
where he is placed, he is ever moving from it ; he does 
not complain of his condition, but soon leaves it behind. 
He does not think of his progress, but progresses. He 



CHARACTER AND GROWTH 95 

is possessed by humility, and thinks others better than 
himself. It is the loftiness of his ideal that both inspires 
and subdues him. He is not a talker, but a doer of the 
word ; a silent pilgrim " to the better land ". Mean- 
while his motto is : " Say little, serve all, pass on " 

And so I live, you see, 

Go through the world, try, prove, reject, 

Prefer, still struggling to effect 

My warfare ; happy that I can 

Be crossed and thwarted as a man. 

Not left in God's contempt apart; 

With ghastly smooth life — dead at heart. 

Then welcome each rebuff 

That turns earth's smoothness rough, 

Each sting that bids — nor sit, nor stand, but gol 

Be our joys three parts pain ! 

Strive, and hold cheap the strain ; 

Learn, nor account the pang ; 

Dare, never grudge the throe ! * 

We will now consider growth by food and exercise, Growth by 

Food and 

or by ideas and circumstances. Exercise. 

The first great means of growth is by the entrance of 
ideas into the mind. These may be introduced consciously 
or unconsciously. Ideas consciously presented in the form 
of precepts are of little use to men of independent mind, 
though of greater value to dependent spirits. The little 
influence that the best advice often has is well described 
by M'Cunn : 2 " There is a risk that every one incurs who 
betakes himself to the man of precepts. Nor does any- 
thing more certainly arrest the influence of good ' advice ' 

1 R. Browning, " Easter Day " and " Rabbi Ben Ezra ". 
* Prof. M'Cunn, The Making of Character, p. 14. 



g6 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

than the suspicion that it has been made up as a general 
prescription. It is but human that the passionate 
egotism of personal trial should revolt against this exas- 
perating procurability of commonplaces." The latter 
method is the least understood, and we will say a word 
or two about it. Ideas are presented unconsciously by 
suggestion ; and for this hypnotism is not needed, the 
process may be quite natural. What is an unconscious 
idea? It is a living mental seed, that, planted in the 
unconscious mind, flowers in consciousness. It is initial 
ideas that " strike " us the hardest and affect us most, 
and that is why all beginnings are so important. " Enter 
not into temptation," derives additional force when we 
regard the first idea as the spark that fires the train. 1 
Apperception. With regard to the power of apperception or sug- 
gestion in linking trains of ideas together, thoughts 
swarm in our minds as bees round a hive, and when the 
queen thought comes forth they all rush around it. 
Maeterlink beautifully says: 2 "Tracing the process of 
suggestion in the brain, on the quality and number and 
power of our clear ideas do the quality and number and 
power depend of those that are vague? And hidden 
away in the midst of these vague ones may well lurk the 
definite truths we seek. Let us not keep them waiting 
too long; and, indeed, a beautiful crystal idea we waken 
within us shall not fail in its time to arouse a beautiful 
vague idea ; which, lasting, growing old, and having 
itself become clear (for is not perfect clearness most often 

x C. Mason, Home Education, 

8 Maeterlink, Wisdom and Destiny, p. 80. 



CHARACTER AND GROWTH 97 

the sign of decrepitude in the idea ?), shall also go forth 
and disturb from its slumbers another obscure idea, but 
loftier, lovelier far than it had been itself, in its sleep ; 
and thus it may be, treading gently one after the other, 
and never disheartened, in the midst of those silent 
vaults — some day, by mere chance (?) — a small hand, 
scarce visible yet, may touch a great truth." 

" It is the duty of parents," as C. Mason tells us, 1 " to Value of ideas 
sustain the child's inner life with ideas, as they sustain 
his body with food. The initial idea begets subsequent 
ideas ; children must therefore get right primary ideas 
on the greater relations and duties of life. The destiny 
of a life may be shaped in the nursery, by the reverent 
naming of the Divine name, by the light scoff at holy 
things, by the right idea of duty a child gets who is 
made to finish his task, or by the hardness of heart 
acquired through hearing the faults of others spoken of 
lightly." 

We have little idea how character develops by the 
pressure of moral opinions and current thoughts. One 
single hint or new idea may actually influence an entire 
character. 

The reception of new ideas not only adds to the 
stock, but modifies the old. Ideas are living principles 
that act and react like chemicals on each other, producing 
fresh compounds in the mind. But their force does not 
end in thought : it is reproduced in action. Ideas of 
conduct tend to reproduce themselves in conduct. "Sow 

1 C. Mason, Home Education, 



98 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

a thought, reap an act ; sow an act, reap a habit ; sow a 
habit, reap a character ; sow a character, reap a destiny." 

Ideas, again, resemble chemicals in another respect. 
In common life they are generally so mixed and com- 
pounded as seldom to be seen in their pure state, in which 
their powers and qualities are most apparent. It is in 
this respect that good fiction has its value on the char- 
acter. " When a chemist," says M'Cunn, " wishes to 
show us what an acid or an alkali is, he exhibits it and 
its behaviour under the enlightening artificial conditions 
of experiment. By a similar artifice, imagination in its 
laboratory of fiction reveals to us what the soul of man 
is by showing how it thinks, feels, wills, acts under the 
carefully devised conditions of fictitious circumstances. 
Floods of light have been in this way let in on moral 
truth. Hence the wisdom of the remark that illusion is 
not delusion." 

Ideas often thus reach the mind, when illuminated by 
the electric light of fiction, that would pass unheeded in 
the ordinary daylight of common life. 

When an idea enters the mind it grows secretly and 
silently. It does not at once become a part of the 
character. 

An idea never adds a new principle to the character, 
or permanently changes an old one when merely adopted 
by reason ; nor when acted on by the feelings ; nor 
when carried out by the will. I may see it right to 
give a tithe, after the idea has entered from some power- 
ful sermon, but I do not thereby become generous. Not 
until giving has so become a habit as to be prompted 



CHARACTER AND GROWTH 99 

instinctively and unconsciously can generosity be said 
to form a part of my character. And, curiously enough 
it is then that merit ceases to attach to the principle, 
though still accompanying the act, if done consciously. 

Nothing learnt or taught, therefore, forms a part of 
the character till it sinks from the conscious into the 
unconscious. 

Ideas may, however, be presented to, and yet not be 
assimilated by, the mind. 

The tendency is for the mind to grasp new ideas, and 
then, if it can, it allies them to something it already 
possesses. Now, unassimilated ideas produce mental indigestible 

Ideas. 

dyspepsia. The difficulty or ease of assimilation depends 
on two factors : the powers of mental digestion and the 
character of the idea. Conservative characters find it 
hard to assimilate new ideas, unless the connection with 
some part of their own creed is very apparent. 

Characters that have been brought up in grooves find 
positive pain in endeavouring to digest some new ideas. 
The difficulty may lie, as we have said, in the character 
or in the idea. Ideas, like food, either are heterologous 
or homologous, that is, they are either unlike the mental 
tissues in their composition, or they are like them. If the 
former, they are not really foods, but poisons. Nothing 
can nourish the mind or body but principles similar 
to those it already contains. I cannot repair a bicycle 
wheel with wooden spokes, or a linen shirt with flannel. 
It is so with ideas, they are either utterly foreign to 
anything in the mind, in which case they cannot be 
assimilated, and often do the mind great injury by 



ioo SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

acting as poison ; or they are like some thought already 
there, and thus become food. 

The teaching of strange ideas is thus called hetero- 
doxy, and the teaching of digestible ones might well be 
called "homodoxy" instead of orthodoxy. 

One man's food is thus another man's poison, on 
account of the difference of character and education, 
ideas nutritious to one being found noxious to another. 

It is this fact that explains the pernicious effect of 
advanced ideas on simple minds. 

A clever man let loose to force his ideas on untrained 
peasants will produce the severest attack of mental 
dyspepsia, and the suffering will be great. 

I know one noble-minded lady, full of fine ideas, who 
mated with a peasant with the view of raising his class. 
The man got softening of the brain soon after, and it 
is by no means improbable the disease was hastened, if 
not caused, by his frantic efforts to digest the new mental 
food provided for him. 
ideas must be In growth of character we endeavour to attach new 
ideas to hereditary instincts. Of course we do not know 
all the constituents either of mind or body ; and it may 
be a new idea will discover in the mind some hidden 
affinity, of which we ourselves were not aware till it 
was brought to light. 

" I should not know I wanted to covet," said St. 
Paul, " unless the law had told me I was not to covet ; " 
and so we often say now of a child : " Do not put such 
an idea into his head". 

The commandments themselves were vain if we had 



Homologous. 



CHARACTER AND GROWTH 101 

not a conscience to respond to them. " Thou shalt not " 
has no meaning unless there is an inner voice saying 
" Thou oughtest not ". 

We are often very susceptible to the opinion of others, 
and weaker characters are largely formed by the ideas that 
spring from this source. Schopenhauer traces some bad 
characters to the effect of the single idea of regarding 
the world as " not myself," and all good as centring in 
the unextended ego. Good ideas are the most powerful 
prophylactic against evil. M'Cunn observes : " The best 
moral antidote lies not in warnings, however particular, 
but in that positive nurture of character which is the 
real source of strength in the hour of temptation". 

The value of good ideas is perhaps most clearly 
indicated in the well-known exhortation : " Finally, 
brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things 
are honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things 
are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report, if there 
be any virtue and if there be any praise, think on these 
things ". 1 

In addition to ideas as food, we require circumstances Circumstances 

as Exercise. 

for exercise in order to grow. Circumstances really in- 
clude all through which we pass in life. 

Take two brothers, and let one be brought up, say, 
as an officer. Let him lead a leisurely, well-ordered life ; 
let him be well washed, well dressed, well fed and well 
cared for till he is thirty-five. Let the other brother live 
in a single room, with his wife and three children, and 

> St. Paul, Phil. iv. 8. 



102 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

follow some dirty, depressing trade, till he is also thirty- 
five ; and then notice how far circumstances can modify 
character. The circumstances of health also affect the 
whole character immensely. 
Circumstances After a time the same circumstances, continued, fail to 

change 

Character. affect character, having exhausted their power. It is as 
novelties that circumstances effect the greatest changes. 
The depth of the impression is in proportion to the 
amount of the novelty. A tour round the world does 
more for character than a tour round England. Some- 
times a change of circumstances brings out character in 
the most amazing way. An idle loafer at home, the 
despair of all his friends, is given a colonial appointment 
or made a consul on some frontier, and soon the world 
is ringing with the splendid capacity he develops. At 
other times the reverse is seen, and a good but not a 
strong character is spoiled in mid life by reverses it is 
not strong enough to bear. Still, even in the presence 
of circumstances, we are no mere masses of clay to be 
formed by them as they will. 

" It is a grand error," says John Stuart Mill, 1 " to 
believe our character is formed for us rather than by us. 
It is formed by circumstances, but the desire to mould it 
in any way is one of these circumstances." Moreover, 
circumstances themselves are often the result of our own 
characters, and cause and effect are reversed. 

"Man," says Carlyle, "is the architect of circum- 
stances. He is indeed often the creator, rather than the 
creature, of circumstances." 

1 J. S. Mill, System of Logic t vol. ii., p. 426. 



CHARACTER AND GROWTH 103 

Shocks and great catastrophes can change the ex- 
pression of character completely ; but sudden changes, 
from their comparative rarity, are, after all, not those 
which chiefly affect us. " For the most part our character 
is formed, not by catastrophes, but by the stealthy and 
ceaseless deposit of circumstances, by the circumambient 
moral atmosphere, from which we cannot for a moment 
escape." 1 

Again, the same circumstances affect people in 
different ways. Loss of money may make one char- 
acter, while easy circumstances may make another. 

There is one special set of circumstances, however, Value of ad- 

, . , . , . , verse Circum- 

on which we must lay stress, so potent are they for good, stances. 
We allude to what are commonly called the evils of life : 
such as adversity, failure, loss of health or money, dis- 
appointment, evil, opposition of all kinds, war and all 
sorts of trials. Character, it is true, is formed both by 
friends and enemies, by success and failure, by pros- 
perity and adversity, by following good and resisting 
evil ; but it is the second part of each clause that 
calls forth the nobler qualities and produces the higher 
results. 

Strong characters and Christian characters are nearly 
always benefited by trials, though when poverty or 
hardship becomes the rule of life it loses its good effect. 
Many of the poor would develop better in a sun-bath of 
prosperity. Most men thus reach their highest develop- 
ment through failure or trial : the prison made Bunyan ; 

1 Prof. Caird, University Sermons, p. 296, 



104 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

the gout did much for C. H. Spurgeon ; as a frail body 
and an agonising disease did for Gordon. 

Where the character is sufficiently noble and strong 
for these severe lessons, and is not overwhelmed by 
them, they soon land the pupil in the top class. 

And what is our failure here but a triumph's evidence 

For the fulness of the days ? Have we withered or agonised ? 

Why else was the pause prolonged, but that singing might issue thence ? 

Why rushed the discord in, but that harmony should be prized ? 

Sorrow is hard to bear, and doubt is slow to clear. 

Each sufferer says his say, his scheme of the weal and woe, 

But God has a few of us whom He whispers in the ear — 

The rest may reason, and welcome ; 'tis we musicians know !* 

The first lesson of history is the good that can come 
out of evil. The Thirty Years' War made Germany, 
and the Boer War has made the Empire. Resistance, 
dangers, reverses are a powerful education. Our initial 
misfortunes and the slow discipline of the war in South 
Africa have done much for our national character. The 
glory of character is that in confronting antagonisms it 
can draw from them new nobilities of principle. " No 
man," says Jeremy Taylor, "is more miserable than 
he that hath no adversity." A perpetual calm will 
never make a sailor. Self-denial is always good for the 
character, for it is the path of life. Adversities not only 
help character, but they reveal its hidden qualities; 
they show the difference between the Paris diamond 
and the African, the pinchbeck and solid gold. They 
reveal — 

1 R. Browning, " Abt Vogler ". 



CHARACTER AND GROWTH 105 

One who never turned his back, but marched straight forward, 
Never doubted clouds would break ; 

Never dreamed, though right were worsted, wrong would triumph, 
Held we fall to rise, are baffled to fight better, sleep to wake. 1 

" It often requires," says Maeterlink, " a great sorrow Sorrows reach 

us through our 

spent together in silence to reveal a man whom we have Thoughts. 
seen for years, but never before known" " Nothing 
befals us," says Maeterlink, 2 " that is not of the nature of 
ourselves," and to each of these severe lessons there 
must be something in the character to respond, some- 
thing they touch, or else the pupil does not profit. It 
all goes over his head, or sours his temper with the long 
words he cannot make out. It might almost be said 
that there happens to men only that they desire. We 
have little power over external events, but much as to 
how far they shall become parts of ourselves. Not a 
single sorrow exists that can touch us save through our 
own thoughts. These form, as it were, an atmosphere 
through which every external event must pass, and 
which determines its character and effect on us. The 
same event to one man is an evil he deplores, and to 
another a blessing in which he rejoices, solely on account 
of the different minds through which it passes. A mind 
can thus be formed to which " all things work together for 
good ". One of the characteristics derived from such cir- 
cumstances is fixedness. Steadiness of purpose is always 
well marked under great pain or pressure. To keep 
head against a rapid stream is different from paddling in 
a pond. 

1 R. Browning. 

2 Maeterlink, Wisdom and Destiny (A. Sutro), p. 31. 



io6 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

But there is another teacher of a milder mood 
through whom we could, if we would, learn most of 
adversity's lessons. Death, grief, trouble teach much ; 
but they who love much may know the secrets these 
teach through this alone. 

Trials and distresses are often needed to teach us 

sympathy ; but love could (I think) instruct us without 

their aid. 

For life, with all it yields of joy and woe 
And hope and fear — (believe this aged friend) 
Is just our chance o' the prize of learning love, 
How love might be, hath been, indeed, and is ; 



So take and use thy work ! 

Amend what flaws may lurk, 

What strain o' the stuff, what warpings past the aim ! 

My times be in Thy hand ! 

Perfect the cup as planned ! 

Let age approve of youth, and death complete the same ! 1 

We have thus considered the two great means of 
growth, by food and exercise, ideas and circumstances — 
and especiallycircumstances that seem against us — both of 
these being in the main educators of the unconscious mind. 

We may now look a little more generally at the 
education of the mind, both unconscious and conscious, 
as a means of growth. 
Education of The end of all education most worthy of the name is 

character, and for this natural means are more effectual 
than artificial and forced methods. With education in 
the narrow sense of information, rather than formation, 
the reverse is true. Natural means ,are useless, and 
artificial and forced methods are the beginning and end 
of the system of all crammers — who, after all, are a most 

1 R. Browning, " A Death on the Desert " and " Rabbi bin Ezra ". 



CHARACTER AND GROWTH 107 

useful body of men under the present senseless regime of 
supplying all our public services and most professions. 
Among the principal general instructors that educate us 
unconsciously and exact no fees are the following : 
the external world, from the stars in the heavens to the 
daisies at our feet, change and novelty, monotony 
(" blessed be drudgery "), relationships of life, responsi- 
bilities of life, friendship and love, religion, besides those 
we have already spoken of— ideas, circumstances gener- 
ally, and adversity. 

The use of others as a looking-glass for ourselves is 
often a potent educator and revealer of character. 

Evil characteristics, seen objectively, disgust us, though 
unnoticed or condoned when subjective ; hence we often 
correct ourselves by the follies of others. 

The opinions of others, we have already seen, have 
much effect on weak characters. 

Now opinion is cruel, and truth is merciful ; opinion 
is worth little, truth is priceless ; and yet probably more 
are moved in this world by opinion than by truth, 
because opinions are to weak characters what truth is to 
strong, and Carlyle (who ought to know) says that " most 
men are fools ". 

Amongst the great unconscious educators our readers 
have been waiting to hear named are doubtless the cele- 
brated twins — Science and Art — which are so much alike 
that they can be hardly told apart, though when together 
the difference is clearly discerned. 

Science is said to rouse and advance people; art Science and 
soothes and does not advance them, although many have cators. 



io8 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

the greatest faith in it as a civilising agent. Art, indeed, 
has little or nothing to do with goodness and morals, and 
often flourishes in a decadent empire, and with the worst 
vices, though no doubt Ruskin rightly teaches us such 
art is not the highest art. 

Modern progress has a powerful effect on character, 
and we are all now busy u teaching our grandmothers," 
who lived in the dull twilight of " the early Victorian era " 
— the fashionable name just now for all that period which 
is old enough to be despised, and not old enough to be 
worshipped. 

Wireless telegraphy, telephony, cycling, the Rontgen 
rays, the imperial penny post, motor cars, bank holidays, 
Cook's excursions, and perhaps still more, " educational " 
travel and polytechnic tours, Board schools, and a 
thousand other novelties all have a powerful effect as 
unconscious educators of character. 
The new In women the effect has been so radical as to 

Woman. 

produce what is described, by those who have had op- 
portunities of observing it carefully — an entirely fresh 
species — under the simple title of " the new woman " 
— a much shorter and more intelligible name than 
would be given to a new plant or animal. Modern 
circumstances are almost entirely responsible for this 
creation, in whom it is said that the inward graces of 
the mind more than compensate for the occasional lack 
of external attractions. This may be so, but we some- 
times say with a sigh, " The old is better ". The 
varieties of the genus vary ; some, indeed, as " the new 
wife, M should be approached with caution and respect, and 



CHARACTER AND GROWTH 109 

are not everywhere received with enthusiasm, differing 
thus greatly from " the new nurse," who comes as a boon 
and a blessing to men to replace the early Victorian 
variety — Mrs. Gamp. Considering the force of modern 
life on character we are still waiting hopefully for the 
production of" the new man " (" the new boy " has already 
arrived as a harbinger), "the new tradesman," "the new 
domestic servant," and some others we will not name. 

Food has a powerful influence on character. I have 
studied this to some slight extent by observing orphan and 
other schools, where in some cases children are brought 
up mainly on farinaceous food, and in others on a well 
mixed diet ; and I am inclined to think that in the former 
the character is slower, more even and placid, in the latter 
quicker and more fiery. Certainly physically the former 
are stouter, slower runners, and are generally less active 
than the latter class. 

Dress is not only significant of character, but, like so 
many things, acts in a double way, and reacts on character. 
People do try to live up to their "blue China," whether 
under this head they mean dress, or deportment, or 
artistic surroundings. 

Turning to conscious education generally, "we are Conscious 
finding that success is to be achieved only by making character. ° f 
our measures subservient to that spontaneous unfolding 
(unconscious education) which all minds go through in 
their progress to maturity". 1 

Wise teachers thus, instead of overcoming evil by as- 

1 Herbert Spencer, Education, pp. 58, 59. 



iio SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

sociating it with punishment, seek to draw out character 
by active pursuits that enlist the mental faculties in 
some good purpose, and the evil is forgotten. In short, 
in this, as in all else, objective methods are better than 
subjective. Development and skill in all arts and pur- 
suits are not gained by subjective effort, but objective. 
The best way of direct education of character, with a 
view to growth, is to put ourselves under the power of 
good influences, ideals and habits ; character cannot 
actually be directly educated, but we can direct the 
forces that act upon it. 

Introspection fostered by direct education often en- 
tirely defeats its objects. La Bruyere has shown that 
many men submit with pleasure to have their small faults 
pointed out, tacitly assuming they are credited with the 
greater virtues. If rebuked for silence, they assume it 
is because they think so much ; if they are useless with 
their hands, it is because they are so strong in their 
minds ; if dirty and untidy, it is because they are so 
occupied with much greater matters. 

Sometimes education applied homoeopathically seems 
the most powerful — so contrary is man. Thus we are 
told that to form the love of a thing we must get satur- 
ated with its opposite, while an evil is best got rid of by 
pursuing and practising it incessantly. We fear many 
under this system are killed before they are cured. 
Summary. To sum up : the result of true education of character 

is its steady growth. 

The emotions are steadied, because, after passing 
through many and varied circumstances, by the remem- 



CHARACTER AND GROWTH in 

brance of past impressions we learn the true average 
and value of events as they come ; we also learn at the 
same time humility and suspense of judgment. 

With regard to intellect, " To be able," says Sweden - 
borg, " to discern that what is true is true, and that what 
is false is false : this is the mark and character of intel- 
ligence " ; while the will becomes the expression of the 
enlarged and enlightened moral settese within, and thus 
emotions, intellect and will combine to prove the growth 
of a higher personality. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER; 

Unconscious- PERHAPS in looking at character now a little more 
Bcbusness and closely it will be well first of all to consider something 
ness?° nSCI0US more of its relations with unconsciousness, consciousness 
and self-consciousness. 

The order in point of time in which these appear in 
the child are as given above. 

As far as we can tell, when a child is born, though it 
undoubtedly possesses stores of psychic qualities, it is 
wholly unconscious of them, and even sense impressions 
at first rouse but the feeblest ideas : it has eyes, but does 
not see ; ears, but does not hear. 

Consciousness, however, soon dawns, the bulk of the 
child's psychic life remaining, however, unconscious and 
instinctive. Later on self-consciousness supervenes. The 
child at first makes no distinction between self and not 
self. It examines its limbs as strange phenomena. When 
the conception of " ego " dawns a new era begins, and 
henceforth the division of "self" and "not self " exists, 
dividing the world into that within and that without. 
Consciousness grows naturally with exercise, and is not 
subject like self-consciousness to artificial development. 

(112) 



ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER 113 

Self-consciousness perhaps culminates with the completed 
physique at and after puberty. We have ventured, as 
will have been observed in earlier chapters, to speak 
distinctly and definitely of an unconscious mind ; not 
thereby meaning for a moment a separate mind, but 
rather that part that lies in unconsciousness. 1 

This is a necessary position if we are to understand 
character at all, for, as a whole, it lies habitually in un- 
consciousness ; and it is this, as we have observed, that 
makes the difficulty of its analysis. 

Let us consider for a moment the conscious and the The Qualities 

of the Con- 
unconscious, scious and the 

Unconscious. 

While the states of the former are ever changing, the 
latter is a permanent possession. This is so true that if 
the state of consciousness remains fixed, it soon ceases 
to be consciousness. If I gaze at the same object long 
enough I cease to see it consciously, or if I repeat the 
same sentence often enough I cease to do so with con- 
scious intelligence. Both conscious and unconscious are, 
however, capable of education, no education of the former 
becoming permanent till stored in the latter. 

The unconscious is the home of character and all 
hereditary qualities, of instincts and motives, of con- 
science or the moral sense, of intuitive perception — such 
as axioms. 

It is dogmatic, absolute, persistent, all-pervading, un- 
swerving and consistent in its action. 

We do not use it ; it uses us, and we are so far its 

1 For the fuller development of this subject see The Unconscious 
Mind, A. T. Schofield. 

8 



ii 4 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

slaves ; as indeed is obvious, since it forms the greater part 
of ourselves. We cannot take up the unconscious mind 
as a tool as we do consciousness, but we can let it speak 
to us, or we can prevent it. We have no absolute need 
to act on instinct, and for a time the conscious will can 
inhibit the action or expression of the unconscious mind. 
Yet in the long run the latter will out, for we cannot be 
always on the watch, and a man shows himself to be 
what he is sooner or later. 
The uncon- We have given some interesting illustrations of the 

scious Mind 

betrays itself, way in which the unconscious asserts itself in The Un- 
conscious Mind, to which we have referred. Those given 
by Cardinal Newman (p. ioo) and by Hartmann (p. 101) 
are familiar. One of the most interesting is where it 
is shown that the unconscious comes to the front in 
spite of every effort at repression by the conscious. In- 
stances are given on pages 73 and 75 of psychologists 
who with their conscious intellects reject with all the 
vigour possible the idea of unconscious psychical pro- 
cesses, and yet in the same work they freely admit them, 
and in one case even assert them. The only explanation 
possible is that the truth of unconscious mental processes 
being known unconsciously to them, though refused by 
conscious intellect, betrayed itself in words, and thus 
gave them away. 

This need not be thought an extraordinary or far- 
fetched explanation. Many a girl shows she is in love 
unconsciously in action, when she would vigorously and 
truthfully, as far as her consciousness goes, deny it. 

The unconscious mind progresses by conscious and 



ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER 115 

unconscious education, the latter being the more power- 
ful of the two. In the unconscious mind you get an ease 
and accuracy unknown in the efforts of the conscious, 
but it is like that of a machine ; and in many ways the 
work done by the conscious is of more value than that 
done by the unconscious ; as a hand-made article, though 
the stitches are not so regular, is of more value than one 
that is machine-made. If in the conscious mind you do 
not have the same ease and perfection, you have thought 
and purpose. 

Now in the conscious mind we get constant change, Value of 

Consciousness 

we get intelligent action, we get moral value, we getandSeif- 

consciousness. 

freedom of thought and of will, we get responsibility, we 
are free ourselves, or at any rate feel so. We have power 
to acquire knowledge at will, we have the distinctive 
stamp of humanity, and we know pleasure and pain and 
all sensations. 

If the will be good, the life is noble in proportion 
as it is lived consciously. It will surprise some who have 
not studied the subject to know what a great proportion 
of life is lived, if not unconsciously, at any rate in sub- 
consciousness. 

Self-consciousness is a further development of mere 
consciousness. It is a new power that enables us to 
see and alter character by introspection. It can adjust 
the balance between instinct and reason. It is a faculty 
that is needed, but which must be cultivated sparingly. 
Like salt, we could not do without it, but it will not 
support life. Its absence is a great loss to character : 
its presence in moderation gives dignity and self-respect, 



n6 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

and indirectly respect of others. In excess it leads to 
all sorts of morbid actions. Introspection may destroy 
all usefulness of character if carried far. 

" There is no value," says Dr. S. Bryant, 1 " in inward 
scrutiny that searches for roots of evil that don't put 
forth leaf or branch." 
Conflict be- Now, although character as such resides in the un- 

tween Reason 

and instinct, conscious, its active expression is in consciousness. 

Character has been described as " organised (uncon- 
scious) habit in recurring situations, and as the result of 
conscious reflection at exceptional times ". The working 
of consciousness and unconsciousness, with their two 
qualities of reason and instinct, is of great moment to the 
character. 

The union and harmony of the two give unity to the 
ego, and peace instead of war between the rational and 
instinctive selves. This is not, however, always possible. 
It is often the case that reason suggests one course and 
instinct another. If the question is a moral one the 
moral sense must be the umpire. If not, the question 
must be referred to a triumvirate of intellect, emotion 
and moral sense, or mind feelings and conscience, and 
both sides must bring up their arguments. The mind 
is thus often turned into a court of law, with pleaders of 
no small ability on both sides ; and finally I myself, a 
compound of reason, feeling and moral sense, decide for 
or against. 

Where this state of things is perpetually recurring 

1 Dr. S. Bryant, Mind, 1897, p. 86. 



ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER 117 

it is disastrous, and shows the reason and the in- 
stincts must have been trained in two very different 
schools. 

Again wisdom and reason are not the same. To be 
reasonable is not the same as being wise. Wisdom is 
never attained by mere reason. Reason knows the 
Infinite objectively, wisdom subjectively. The ideas of 
reason are clear, those of wisdom often obscure and 
unconscious. 

Reason should never interfere with instinct need- 
lessly. Rochefoucauld says that " nothing so much pre- 
vents our being natural as the desire to appear so " ; in 
other words, naturalness, an unconscious quality, cannot 
be shown consciously. 

With regard to responsibility, every man is responsible Responsibility, 
for what he does wittingly, that is, consciously. But 
then the question is how far is he responsible for what 
he is? That is, how far does responsibility or merit 
attach to the possession, apart from the expression, of 
character? Some answer that a man is not intellectually 
responsible, but morally ; but this is not an absolute or 
a very clear distinction. 

We should judge (under correction) that responsi- 
bility attaches to that part of the character that we 
have become, or that we have added to the original 
stock. That while we cannot be responsible for what 
was originally imparted to us, we can be for that we 
have added or permitted to be added to it, even apart 
from its expression in action. The subject is abstruse 
and speculative, and we will not pursue it further. It is 



n8 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

a question in which the old schoolmen and casuists have 
revelled with eager delight. 

With regard to the expression of character by will 
action we must not say much here, as it forms the 
subject of Chapter X. But we may just point out that 
the value and responsibility attaching ever to the will is 
simply because it is the active ego, or the ego in action. 
It is free, and yet it acts according to the unconscious 
swaying of the character and the moral sense and hidden 
motives. 

" My son, give Me thy heart " means " Give God the 
seat of thy motives ". Whoever has this has cap- 
tured the will ; and though it may appear free and 
feel free, it is controlled by the One who possesses the 
heart. " Out of the heart are the issues of life," because 
thence the will is controlled, and the will determines the 
conduct, and the conduct the life ; so all is gained when 
the citadel is the unconscious mind, the motive is sur- 
rendered. 

Ballast is as essential to character as to a ship, or as 
a tail to a kite ; and by ballast we mean that restraint 
that reason places on instinct. It is a faculty that may 
be acquired. Without it the man is "unstable as water, 
and cannot excel ". 
The com- We will now pass on, after these general remarks, to 

ponents of . . r . . 

Character. consider the analysis of character into its component 
parts as attempted by one or two able men. We have 
already in Chapter III. referred to such analysis as 
definitely connected moral qualities with " organs " in the 
brain, and then gave Bain's corrected list of these. 



ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER 119 

Dr. Edridge Green 1 suggests the following as a list 
of the components of character : — 

Faculties. — Acquisitiveness, Perseverance, Destruc- 
tiveness, Courage, Cautiousness, Secretiveness, Appro- 
bativeness, Firmness, Self-esteem. 

Social Qualities. — Amativeness, Parental Love, 
Sociality. 

Moral Qualities. — Love of Truth, Spirituality, Hope, 
Veneration, Benevolence. 

We give the list without further comment. 

Samuel Bailey 2 says the elements of personal character 
are: — 

1. The predominance of certain feelings over others 
less marked, united in infinitely varying proportions. 

2. Being able to perform certain intellectual opera- 
tions better than others, as reasoning or remembering. 

3. An aptitude with regard to special matters. 

4. Strength or weakness of will. 

5. Physical endowments. 

This list is an agreeable substitute of general 
characteristics from the many-syllabled qualities com- 
mon to other lists ; but to us we cannot say that it 
carries conviction or bears the stamp of a complete 
analysis. 

Another, and to our mind much more able, list is Dr. Martin- 

1 t 1 -i-* eau's List of 

given by the late Dr. Martineau. primary Prin- 

" Principles of character are," he says, " divisible into 
two classes — primary and secondary." 

1 Edridge Green, Memory, p. 67. 

9 See Sully, The Human Mind, vol. ii., p. 265, 



120 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Primary principles of character are natural and 
instinctive. 

Secondary principles are those that are superadded 
by consciousness and self-consciousness as means to 
recognised ends. 

The list of the primary is as follows : — 

1. Propensities (natural forces), — Food, Sex, Exer- 
cise. 

2. Passions (natural capacity of suffering and repul- 
sion). — Antipathy, Fear, Anger. 

3. Affections (attractions). — Parental, Social, Com- 
passionate. 

4. Sentiments. — Wonder, Admiration, Reverence. 
All those primary qualities are distinguishable, and 

each yields (in action) some sort of satisfaction which in 
itself may become an end — i.e., an aim to produce certain 
Secondary states of emotion. These are the secondary principles, 
founded upon the primary, and they are here given in 
their moral order : — 

Malice, Vindictiveness, Suspiciousness, springing from 
the three primary passions. 

These three alone of all the secondary principles have 
no place in the moral order of springs of character, as 
they are alone utterly bad, being corruptions of the 
passions which were given us for our protection into 
attractions for our pleasure in that which is evil. 

1. Love of Pleasure. 

2. „ Food and Sex. 

3. „ Exercise. 

4. „ Money. 



Principles. 



ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER iai 

All springing from primary propensities. 

5. Sentimentality (from the affections). 

6. Antipathy, Fear, Anger, as secondary qualities. 

7. Love of Power. 

8. Self-culture, yEstheticism, Religious Feeling. 

9. Wonder and Admiration. 

Both 8 and 9 form primary sentiments. 

10. Parental and Social Affections, as secondary 
qualities. 

11. Sympathy. 

12. Reverence, as secondary quality. 

For our own part we think that but little is gained by 
a general analysis that is wide enough to embrace all 
characters. We hope in the next chapter to enter upon 
a consideration of the qualities of character, and with 
this rather than with a complete and orderly analysis we 
must at present rest satisfied. 

The two sexes present some differences of character character in 

the two Sexes. 

and mental qualities generally that are fairly constant 
and general. We may note a few : — 

Intuition, instinct and tact are far greater with 
women than with men. These are qualities of the uncon- 
scious mind. The result suddenly appears in conscious- 
ness, the antecedent steps lying buried in the unconscious. 
A woman will know instinctively the right course to 
adopt, while quite unable to say why, while a man is 
laboriously trying to reason out the "pros" and "cons ". 
The instinct, moreover, when not perverted, is generally 
a true guide, and can attain results with a celerity and 
certainty of unconscious mind action that far outstrips 



122 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

the steps of reason. It is the high development of this 
great gift that makes women often such helpful coun- 
sellors in cases of difficulty ; and it is on account of their 
right estimation of its superior value that women are 
often so impatient of argument. Even when women 
take the trouble to reason a matter out, they will often 
reject the conclusions they arrive at in favour of a solu- 
tion suggested intuitively. This is one of the differences 
in the mental characteristics of the sexes, and the whole 
character is swayed by it. Men have also the faculty, 
and more largely than they think, but they do not trust 
it or use it nearly so much. Instinct and intuition must 
of course carefully be distinguished from impulse, and 
especially as women are so often called "creatures of 
impulse ". Intuition may often counsel an action the 
direct reverse of what an impulse would suggest. 
Special Points Women again are keener at perception ; their rapidity 
in this is remarkable. Houdin has known ladies, pass- 
ing each other at full speed in carriages, who could 
analyse each other's dress, bonnets, shoes, etc., as to 
fashion, colour and quality, and even detect the dif- 
ference between hand and machine made lace. 

A slight difference in dress or appearance is far more 
readily detected by a woman than by a man. 

Women are much quicker in thought. They can use 
their brains more rapidly within the accustomed range. 
Beyond it, on the other hand, they are slower. 

Women are easier to educate and train than men, 
They are quicker as well as more diligent. 

They are more sociable and domestic. Man may be 



in Women. 



ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER 



123 



more clubable, but there is very little sociability at clubs. 
Society itself is made and ruled and maintained by 
women, not men. Sociability is quite different from 
powers of combination for specific purposes. 

Women are said, on what ground we know not, to 
be more prominent in politics than religion, and J. S. 
Mill, at any rate, considered women better fitted for 
politics than men ! 

Women undoubtedly excel in fiction, although the 
greatest novels (in the sense of power and originality) 
are written by men. They also excel in acting. The 
predominance of the emotions and imagination in the 
female sex accounts for this. 

Natural social instincts we have already seen charac- 
terise women. Moral instincts are also stronger in them, 
and the whole range of what may be called the passion 
virtues. Women are much more flexible than men, 
though when rigid they are more rigid. A woman has 
greater adaptability in new surroundings and circum- 
stances, and can ascend or descend the social scale with 
greater ease and more perfect steps. 

Women are, as we have said, more dependent and 
more patient than men. 

In work, women are better than men in patient con- 
tinuance, and in mechanical work at low pressure. At 
the Post Office women do light work better than men. 
Women can express their thoughts better and are better 
letter writers than men. Mechanical inventions are made 
bestfby men and used best by women. Women are more 
conventional than men, and are readier to accept arti- 



124 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

ficial standards of conduct, in dress, or right and wrong, 
than men. 
Special Points Besides those spheres where man's strength and his 

in Men. 

dominant position, so long maintained, give him un- 
questioned pre-eminence, there are some things in which 
men excel the cause of which is less obvious. In art 
of all sorts, for instance, in religion as leaders and writers, 
in poetry, the highest type of genius seems to be con- 
fined to men, and this not on account of better education 
and surroundings, for it is a purely natural product of 
the unconscious mind ; and though its powers are con- 
sciously exercised, their source is hidden from their pos- 
sessor. Men are essentially more selfish and egotistic 
than women. This indeed is well marked throughout 
life. A man far more constantly talks about himself 
than a woman, though capable at times of sublime un- 
selfishness. Man is undoubtedly naturally more self- 
centred than woman. 

He is also capable of combining for a common object 
for pleasure or business far better than woman. This 
is, indeed, one of the chief hindrances to advance in 
the female labour markets. 

He is more violent in the expression of his emotion, 
and yet less emotional on the whole. He is more vari- 
able, — more brilliant in many cases, more worthless in 
others. He is more capable of original work and 
better able to work at high pressure. His greater 
strength, of course, enables him to do the more 
Further Con- arduous work of the world. Women are, on the 
whole, more impressed by facts than laws, by the 



ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER 125 

particular than the general, by the concrete rather 
than by the abstract. 

Some time ago fifty students of both sexes, an equal 
number of each, were to write out the first hundred words 
that came into their heads, making 5,000 words in all. 

Of these 5,000, 3,000 were found to be in pairs, 
showing that the thoughts of the sexes were more alike 
than different. Out of the remainder it was found that 
the men used more different words of a mere abstract 
nature and largely connected with the animal kingdom, 
while the words thought of by the women were mainly 
concerning dress and food. The thoughts of the men 
evidently ran on the remote and abstract ; that of the 
women on their environment and the concrete. 

Amongst seven stories, six by boys whose ages 
ranged from four to seven, and one by a girl of five, it 
was found, while the boys' stories were marked by action, 
slaughter, repetition and want of coherence, that of the 
girl was orderly, quieter in tone, with well arranged 
sequence, and, above all, gentle and showing the love 
of home life. 

Men are more mobile and progressive, women more 
stable and conservative. Women are more plastic within 
fixed limits, men more in wider limits. If men, however, 
have greater originality, women have more common 
sense. 

Common sense, by the way, is not a reasoned quality, 
but rather a quality of the unconscious mind exercised 
intuitively. The unconscious psychic powers generally 
are larger factors in the life of women than of men. 



136 springs of character 

Men think more, women feel more. Man specialises 
arts, crafts, and professions, being more original. The 
fine division of labour is said to be a male characteristic. 
Looked at very broadly, passivity characterises women 
most, activity men. 
Religious Pursuing the subject yet further to religion, it is clear 

Character of . .... 

Woman. that naturally a woman is more religious than a man. 
She is more superstitious, and forms by far the majority 
of those who are swayed by successive forms of imposi- 
tion that have deluded the credulous. But this is a 
different matter, and arises from a different cause from 
her pre-eminence in true religion. At the bottom we 
find a reason in the altruistic nature jof woman as com- 
pared with man, arising in a larger measure from her 
maternal cares, and the God-given love and patience 
needed to rear a family. This predisposes her to accept 
and understand a Bible whose whole story is that of 
unselfish love to the helpless and the lost. 

Another reason is that the affections are more de- 
veloped in her, and love is more her life. This love 
rightly directed towards God is the fulfilling of the whole 
law, and the Bible again is the story of its divine ex- 
pression towards man. 

It is not a little remarkable to note in the Gospel 
story that while the enemies of Christ were ever men, 
women were always His friends ; and one feels instinc- 
tively how much more they cared for Him than often 
His own disciples. 

Such is an imperfect outline of some of the different 
characteristics of men and women that are more or less 



ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER 127 

obvious. Many of our readers may not even agree as to 
all of these ; but we think the majority will be regarded 
as correct. We will now return to our general analysis. 

States of mind is another name for fixed tendencies states of Mind. 
or characteristics, and are totally denied as antecedent 
to conduct by some psychologists, more especially 
those naturally who object to all unconscious mental 
processes. 

States of mind produce other states of mind or of 
body. One thought leads to another by what is called 
apperception. The powers of association in apperception 
are great enrichers of character. The whole process is 
unconscious, but affects the entire life. The words 
home, mother, nursery, childhood, God, mean in after 
life pretty much what was impressed unconsciously in 
suggestive ideas in childhood. One of the greatest 
blessings of a good character is the character of the 
apperceptions acquired. The secret of a good memory 
is by using the power of apperception in the relation of 
ideas, and not by mere repetition. 

Sometimes apperception leads us astray, as when a 
town child, seeing a pot of maiden-hair fern, called it a 
pot of green feathers. 

Apperception requires time to perfect. In the con-Apperception. 
scious mind there may be two or three clear ideas (it 
cannot hold above six at a time), while in the unconscious 
mind may lie a number of associated ideas (as in an 
ante-chamber) ready to be ushered into consciousness. 
The more intensity in the ideas and the more time given 
them, the more associations unite with them. We have 



128 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

given a beautiful description of this process by Maeter- 
link in the preceding chapter. 

Age affects character. The old and experienced 
are more steady than the young, and the temperament, 
moral and physical, is less easily altered. Character, 
when consolidated and formed, becomes an organic 
entity. The many qualities that enter into it are like 
the chemical elements in a compound, they form in- 
separable parts of the whole. This we will speak of 
later more in detail. 

The mind when formed is no mere bundle of associa- 
tions, but reaches Mr. Stout's state of " noetic synthesis " 
or has this organic character. 

An organised mind is not controlled by impulse and 
association, but groups all new facts in accordance with 
settled plans and interests. 

Turning now to varieties of character, we may begin 
at the bottom with those that, as we say, have no char- 
acter, i.e., are of such a weak and superficial nature as 
to be incapable of being inspired with ideals, so that 
nothing is very clearly impressed or expressed in their 
life. 

Ruskin fears this condition is creeping upon our 
nation. He says : l " I felt with amazement we are all 
plunged into a languid dream. Our hearts fat, and our 
eyes heavy, and our ears closed, lest we should see with 
our eyes, and understand with our hearts, and be healed.' 
That " life itself should have no motive, here is a mystery 

X J. Ruskin' s Works, vol. i., p. 134. 



ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER 129 

indeed ". And yet elsewhere he draws a more hopeful 
picture of our countrymen. " The modern English mind 
has this much in common with the Greek, that it intensely 
desires all things : the utmost completion or perfection 
compatible with their nature." * 

Next above these of no class we get men of inter- 
mittent inspiration, who occasionally reveal signs of 
character, but are still too vague to classify. 

At the other extreme we get the genius, which is as Mixtures and 

Compounds. 

much beyond classification as these are below it. The 
more ordinary characters have been grouped in various 
ways. Adopting the language of chemistry we may 
divide them into mixtures and compounds. A mixture 
is where two or more ingredients are mixed in various 
proportions, and still retain their original qualities ; 
in a compound the ingredients chemically unite so 
as to form a fresh body. Air is a well-known mixture 
of the two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, in varying pro- 
portions, and either can be separated from the other. 
Water is a compound of the two gases, oxygen and 
hydrogen, which are so chemically united as to lose their 
identity and form a liquid. In a "mixed" character 
you get the Jekyll-Hyde type, that is a man who is 
different characters at different times, according to 
which ingredient or side of the mixture is uppermost or 
active at the time. This type is common and well 
known, and the various and ever contradictory sides of 
character displayed by the same individual are often 
startling. 

1 J. Ruskin, Stones of Venice, vol. ii., chap, vi., pp. II, 12. 

9 



130 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

A " compound " character is of a much higher type ; 
in it the different ingredients have had sufficient likeness 
or have been so carefully blended that a stable com- 
bination is the result, and the action of the person is 
uniform, and you always " know where to find him ", 
You can rely on his acting in such and such a manner. 
You are not startled and sometimes shocked at finding 
Mr. Hyde at home when you call on Dr. Jekyll. 

It is interesting to see that often the fires of adversity 
and trouble and sorrow have the power to fuse mere 
mixtures into combinations, and produce out of a fickle 
and uncertain mixture a stable and harmonious com- 
pound. I think this is one of the commonest ways in 
which adversity " improves " people. It is not only 
that the " dross " is burnt away, but that the qualities 
that remain learn to act together in the stress of war 
in a way they never could in the piping times of 
peace, 
yarious Compound characters themselves may be divided 

into (i) the well-balanced — qualities blended more or less 
evenly ; (2) the single-minded — qualities blended, leav- 
ing one conspicuous trait that characterises the whole. 
Again we may say that all men are either (1) lovers oi 
freedom or idealists, z>., with a mental or psychical 
bias ; or (2) lovers of pleasure or sensationalists, i.e., 
with a materially physical or sensuous bias. The former 
are, as a rule, the more, and the latter the less moral, 
and are respectively altruistic and egotistic. The latter 
generally predominate, inasmuch as characters are, as a 
rule, compounded of self-regard, tempered with benevo- 



Groupings. 



ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER 131 

lence, whereas they should be love tempered with self- 
regard. 

Another classification we may name falls under three 
heads. These are the blind, the seeing, and the seeing 
and doing. Perhaps the best threefold grouping is those 
characters where will predominates, where emotion rules, 
and where intellect guides. The first are energetic, 
but not distinctively sympathetic or wise. The second 
are inactive, but credulous and sanguine. The third are 
thoughtful, abstracted and clever, leading a reticent life 
with little emotion. Sometimes we get a rare com- 
bination in right proportions of all three. Such a char- 
acter may not be outwardly attractive, but its inward 
worth can never be concealed. 

Emerson says : " He who aims high must dread an 
easy home and a popular manner. Heaven sometimes 
hedges a rare character about with ungainliness, as the 
burr protects the chestnut." On the other hand, super- 
ficial characters are often the most attractive. The 
qualities that are the most showy are often on the surface, 
and of little intrinsic worth. The scientific man is the 
practical embodiment of an intellectual nature, while the 
artist (in music or painting) represents the one whose 
feelings are in advance of his thoughts, and who has 
quick mental emotions. 

Memory varies immensely in people, and, in children Memory and 

... Character. 

especially, has no doubt some connection with the 
character. 

A so-called good or naughty little child may depend 
for its character rather on its memory than its morals. 



132 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Some forget pain so readily that they do the same thing 
at night for which they were punished in the morning. 
Others remember both commands and penalties so well 
that they never commit the same fault twice. The 
former class are ever sinning and repenting. 

The motor force that expresses character is the 
motive. Motives are what move the will, and thus show 
character in conduct. The motive is the moral element 
in voluntary action, and its determining cause. 

Some characters are so characterless that they appear 
purposeless, and no motive of action can be traced. 
There is more hope even of a man with a bad purpose 
than of one with none at all ; with the latter, as we say, 
there is nothing to work on. Some men are like floating 
straws carried haphazard on the current of life, sad or 
bright according to what chances to befal them. Others 
there are who influence and brighten all that touches 
them with the fixed purpose of their inward life. 
Maeterlink compares 1 the two lives to a mountain stream 
and a canal — the one turned aside by every obstacle, de- 
layed, winding, useless, though perhaps picturesque ; the 
other controlled by wisdom, of great use, and over- 
coming all obstacles in its straight course. 

Motives should not be artificial, but should be natural, 
and in any case express the self — 

" To thine own self be true, 

And it must follow, as the night the day, 

Thou canst not then be false to any man." 

The springs of action do not often divide into good and 

1 Maeterlink, Wisdom and Destiny (A. Sutro), p. 26. 



ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER 133 

bad, but into better and worse. Few actions are the 
result of a single motive, but each is rather the resultant 
of several, being characterised by the strongest. 

A right motive by no means implies a wise act. We 
are all familiar with foolish people who "mean well," 
and whose motives are beyond criticism. 

Principles determine the right of the act or character 
— consequences determine the wisdom of the act o 
conduct. 

In speaking of good and bad, we only, as we have 
so often said, attach moral value to the voluntary acts. 
Moral and immoral only relate to conscious purpose, 
hence it is not strictly accurate to speak of moral 
instincts, for these are unconscious. The same instincts 
swayed by new motives of action may become moral or 
immoral accordingly. 

It is, however, difficult to analyse motives, or even 
to classify them. 

The moment we try to bring a spring or a motive 
into consciousness it shrinks in size and importance. It 
is always greater than can be expressed in words. A 
man makes his motives, not motives the man, though 
they reveal him — self is not caused, but causal. 

Motives may be classed as selfish or egotistic, unselfish Egotistic, 

... .... tt 1 1 • r Altruistic and 

or altruistic, and religious. Huxley, in his famous Religious 

Motives. 

Romanes lectures at Oxford, laid down that, whereas the 
first was the law of all physical progress, the second is 
the law of all psychic advance ; in other words, the body 
advances by looking after Number One, the soul by 
caring for others. From this Leslie Stephen, in his 



134 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Science of Ethics, entirely dissents, tracing both to egotistic 
motives. The third and highest class of motive, when 
pure and true, is the noblest source of action. 

Motives might also be classed as intellectual and 
emotional. Prudence, or the interested motive of good 
conduct, is a type of one ; sympathy, or the disinterested 
motive of good conduct, a type of the other. 

Duty as a motive simply means obedience to the 
moral sense within, whether the duty be to self, or to 
others, or to God. 
Pleasure and So far we have considered character analytically, and 

Pain. 

glanced at its varieties and its motives, and we will now 
close with a few words on pleasure and pain, as motives 
and objects, before passing on to consider the qualities of 
character. 

Pleasure is said to be an exaltation and stimulation 
of emotion — pain a depressor. 

Increased capacity for pleasure means also increased 
capacity for pain, although an emotional temperament 
feels pleasure more than pain. So universal are the 
effects of pleasure and pain that it seems evident they 
probably rest upon some common physical basis. 

With regard to their position as influencing character 
Bentham says : " Nature has placed mankind under the 
government of two sovereign masters, Pain and Pleasure. 
It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, 
as well as to determine what we shall do." But then 
we must remember Bentham was a great sensationalist, 
a modern Epicurean in principle, though certainly not in 
practice. 



ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER 135 

A system, however, that makes pleasure itself, indi- 
vidual or universal, the end of life is not truly moral. 
" Even expediency," says Coleridge, " is the anarchy 
of morality/' 

A moral character does not pursue pleasure, but 
lakes it as it comes, and in the most natural way 
possible. 

Fortunately it is true that, though pleasure should not 
be an object, it is often associated with virtue, and wrong- 
doing with pain. Taking pleasure in a virtue does not 
lessen its value, but enhances it with the perfect man, 
to whom perfect right is perfect happiness. 

There is no doubt that in the unconscious mind 
there is ever a strong instinct to seek pleasure and avoid 
pain, but we are here speaking of conscious aims and 
objects 

Now, pleasures and pains are by no means fixed Varying 

Sources of 

entities, but depend themselves entirely on the character Pleasure 

and Pain. 

of the individual, no two agreeing on the list of the two. 
Publicity is a source of the greatest pleasure to one man, 
agony to another. A good dinner is a keen pleasure 
to some, a source of weariness to others. There is no 
doubt the loftier the character the higher are what are 
classed as pleasures, and vice versa. 

It is also true that the greater the wealth and the 
easier the circumstances the less pleasure is found in 
them. The pursuit of any single pleasure invariably 
ends in disappointment. Perhaps a healthy frugal life, 
in medium circumstances, with a good character and 
high aims, on the whole ensures the greatest pleasures ; 



136 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Neither poverty nor riches seem to go with much enjoy- 
ment, as the wise man found out long ago. 

Goethe, with all his prosperity and riches, states that 
he had not five weeks of genuine pleasure in his whole 
life ; and the Caliph Abdalrahman said that in fifty 
years he had had only fourteen days of pure happi- 
ness. 

The character of a man may be fairly judged by his 
pleasures, which always harmonize with it. The mor 
unselfish a nature is the greater is its capacity for 
pleasure. 

As we have seen, where an ideal at which the life 
is aimed is really loved and followed with the affections 
as well as the intellect and will, intense pleasure is the 
result of its pursuit. Indeed, life itself becomes one long 
pleasure, where the highest aims are followed with a 
whole heart. 

In this analysis of character we do well to remember 
the words of Aristotle : x " We do not engage in these 
inquiries merely to know what virtue is, but to become 
good men". 

1 Aristotle's Ethics, chap, xi., 2, p. 1. (See also Epictetus, Ench., 51.) 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE QUALITIES OF CHARACTER. 

We will devote this chapter to a consideration of the The Value 

consists of 

various ingredients or characteristics of character. The Proportions of 

Ingredients. 

value of character, curiously enough, does not depend 
entirely on what qualities are contained in it, but also 
upon the proportions in which they enter into it, in order 
to compose the " noetic synthesis " of the whole. Hydro- 
gen and oxygen will never make water unless there are 
exactly two parts of hydrogen to one of oxygen. It is 
this question of the infinitely varying proportions of the 
various elements that go to make up an ordinary charac- 
ter that renders the analysis of the most complicated 
organic compounds mere child's play in comparison to 
the analysis of the most commonplace character. 

It is quite impossible for any mental chemist to say 
of what elements, and in what proportions, any given 
character is compounded ; and a brief and serious con- 
sideration of these difficulties will, I think, lead any one 
to understand that it is impossible at present to found a 
true science of character, or to make any ultimate analysis 
of it. 

In connection with the great fact of the value of pro- Well-balanced 

r i , • • 11 i -1 Characters. 

portions, we find that it is generally vaguely recognised 

(i37) 



138 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

in our current expressions : such as " a well-balanced 
character," "a one-sided character," or "a level-headed 
man". Cranks and eccentrics and " hobbyists" and 
faddists may all have good characters, but they are 
essentially ill-proportioned, and therefore of little value. 

The first meaning of hucaioavvr) as understood by 
Plato is not justice, but the equal balance of the different 
factors of character. 

Rationality and sanity depend on all-round views — 
on seeing things from a general standpoint (which is of 
course the combination of various standpoints), and not 
being wholly absorbed by a single aspect. 

Such rational characters affirm much and deny little, 
knowing that we are generally right in what we affirm 
and wrong in what we deny. Truth is so many-sided 
that they who have seen what different aspects it may 
wear from various points of view know the force of this. 
But they who have only one standpoint, and observe that a 
certain object appears round, are not content with saying 
it is round, but must deny that it is square, and quarrel 
with any who assert this. One can always rightly affirm 
the truth of what one sees and knows, but to deny there 
can be anything else is to say one knows the thing or 
matter completely and perfectly. The fact is that on 
Truth is greater earth we cannot comprehend truth. At most we ap- 
prehend in part and know in part. Truth, like light, is 
one, and is white ; but passing through the prism of the 
finite, truth becomes split up, like light, into many 
coloured rays — violet, indigo, blue, red, etc. The man 
who discovers the red ray is so fascinated with its 



THE QUALITIES OF CHARACTER 139 

beauty that he constitutes himself its champion, and 
declares that red is truth, and truth is red and nothing 
but red ; and he becomes a bitter antagonist of another 
seer, equally limited in thought, whose path, having 
been illumined by a green ray, proclaims henceforth 
that truth is green and nothing but green. It is sad to 
think that these two doughty champions, both valiant 
fighters for different aspects of the one truth, may not 
become reconciled until the diverging rays become again 
absorbed in infinity, and the light that is above the bright- 
ness of the sun reveals to their astonished gaze that truth 
itself is neither red nor green, but white. The man who 
takes the widest views is always the one who makes the 
most moderate statements, and the strongest characters 
are generally the simplest in speech ; the feeble en- 
deavouring to conceal their weakness by the strength, 
and, sometimes, profanity of their language. This is one 
reason why weak young men are so given to swearing 
and superlatives. 

Emerson says, referring to the balance of common Harmony and 
sense : " There is a certain wisdom of humanity common sense. 
to all men ". The " sweet reasonableness " of Matthew 
Arnold still better describes the quality we are dwelling 
on. " Let your moderation be known unto all men " 
perfectly expresses the idea of a well-balanced character 
in New Testament language. It is the curbing of in- 
stinct by wisdom that governs destiny. Just as a circle 
is the most perfect figure in geometry, so is a character 
perfect in proportion as it is circular in form. All square 
characters have angles, and all lopsided characters are 



14© SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

uneven. A good man is a symmetrical man, whose 
powers are all harmonious. The more you strike him, 
the fuller the chord you get out of him ; and there are 
no discords. It is the presence of this harmony that 
distinguishes the "man of character" from the "man of 
qualities " only. It is this harmony that the Greek 
philosophers ever regarded as the essence of virtue. 
Turning to the character of our Saviour as the most 
perfect representation of the highest ideal, we find that 
in the striking symbolism of the Old Testament it is 
represented by "fine flour mingled with oil," which 
apparently would convey the idea of perfect uniform 
excellence and evenness, no single grain being larger 
than another, pervaded throughout by the Holy Spirit, 
of which oil is the well-known figure. 

Overgrown powers on any one side of the char- 
acter dwarf and starve the others ; as Lord Bacon, 
for example, with his hypertrophied intellect and his 
atrophied moral nature. If we take a circle to repre- 
sent perfection in character, we may be sure that if we 
see a bulging on one side, that is, predominance of some 
characteristic, there must be a corresponding flattening 
or deficiency on another side. We all have the defects 
of our virtues in this sense. 
Antiphonai A man cannot be specially strong all round. There 

is even the positive and negative side both to virtues 
and vices. A drunkard is not only a drinker to excess 
(positive vice), but he is not a temperate man (negative 
vice). A philanthropic man not only does not hate his 
neighbour (negative virtue), but loves him (positive virtue). 



THE QUALITIES OF CHARACTER 141 

We can thus express any vice or virtue either in its 
own positive terms, or in negative terms of its opposite : 
for all have opposites. The practical remark we wish 
to make on this is that to eradicate or overcome a vice 
it is not enough, according to the Divine Code, and 
according to the highest ethics, to practise its op- 
posite negative virtue. Every vice has its antiphonal 
virtue, which should be positively practised. As in 
war, an attack should not be met with a mere defence 
(negative), but with a counter attack (positive). In 
hatred it is not enough not to hate, we should love ; 
he that steals is not only to steal no more, but to give 
to him that needeth ; corrupt communications are not 
only to cease out of the mouth, but that which is good 
is to proceed from it ; we are not only not to be drunk 
with wine, but are to be filled with the Spirit. Evil 
habits are best overcome, not by mere resistance, but 
by the vigorous formation of the opposite virtuous habits. 

Again, this balance of which we have spoken involves, The Relative 

and the Abso* 

at any rate in humanity, a relative value to each quality lute, 
rather that an absolute. 

The absolute is the infinite; all with us is relative. 
We can seldom indeed absolutely affirm or deny the 
right or wrong of our actions. In most cases it is a 
balance, and an adjustment and relative values ; and 
in the presence of a better and a worse, the better must 
ever be the right to us. In practice the answer to the 
question, Which is right and which is wrong ? may be 
" Either," " Both," or " Neither ". 

The result practically is that a mixed character which 






Selfishness 



14a SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

has pairs of tendencies directly opposed to each other 
must have a fixed predominance of one of each pair to 
produce consistency of conduct. Those who have them 
in such equipoise as to act on each alternately are ever 
unstable and the sport of circumstance. 

To have Jekyll and Hyde alternately inhabiting the 
one man is monstrous, though not uncommon. The one 
or the other should rule and keep its opposite in abey- 
ance ; where this is not done conduct appears opposed 
to character, and two sorts of conduct are ever due, of 
course, to a double character. 
Value of We will now consider the question of self and selfish- 

ness in the balance of character. " Faith in self," says Dr. 
S. Bryant, 1 "and self-confidence is the salt of character.'' 
Self-interest is not selfishness. Selfishness is self-grati- 
fication at the avoidable expense of others. 

"Each mind," says James, 2 "must have a certain mini- 
mum of selfishness in the shape of instincts of bodily 
self-seeking in order to exist." 

Love of self is assumed in the New Testament. It 
is found in the golden rule "to do unto others as we 
would they should do to us," and also in a remarkable 
passage in Ephesians, v. 28. 

True self-love is as far from egotism as from altruism. 
There is no real antagonism, in one sense, between egotism 
and altruism. The latter is merely the extending of the 
thought of self so as to embrace wife, children, friends 
and country, and, in Christianity, one's enemies. The 

1 Dr. S. Bryant, Studies in Character, p. 9. 
*W. James, Psychology, p. 194, 



- - ; - 






z~. 



i 4 4 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

by no means a synonym for a good character. To exalt 
either at the expense of the other is to lose in character ; 
nevertheless it is by virtue of our reason that we are dis- 
tinctively human, while it is our instincts and emotions that 
link us with the lower creation. It is in this sense that 
consciousness, in the light of which reason is exercised, 
is nobler than unconsciousness, from the depths of which 
our instincts spring. 

Even here, however, we must guard our statements ; 
for, on the other hand, there is a subtle connection, of 
which we shall speak in Chapter XII., between the in- 
stinctive moral sense within and the Creator, that makes 
it speak from a higher level, and with greater authority 
than even the voice of reason. 
Value of That character is best and most perfect when a good 

Humour. .... . . . , , , . 

intelligence is joined to a warm heart, and the stream 
of emotion is controlled by wisdom. It is this I think 
that makes humour such a " saving grace ". A character 
I with no sense of humour is essentially deficient. It is a 
peculiarly rational quality, and is generally present in 
a well-balanced mind. It is due to the co-existence of 
two points of view at the same time, whose incongruity 
causes the humour. Dr. Jackson thinks it is by the con- 
current action of both sides of the brain. It is said to be 
the combined action of enthusiasm and rationality — in 
other words, the emotions and the intellect, the unity of 
the two currents causing the ripples of laughter. 
Truthfulness. Turning now for a moment to another quality of 

character — truthfulness — we find a subject full of com- 
plexity. It is most difficult to speak of truth considered 



THE QUALITIES OF CHARACTER 145 

as a balance and a compromise; we shall touch on it 
as a virtue a little later on. 

We must always be as truthful as possible ; even if 
we are not to be truthful at all costs. At any rate we are 
never to compromise truth from self-interest. Motives 
are, however, hard to analyse. We cannot define moral 
motives with precision, nor press them absolutely ; they 
must be followed and practised in the light of common 
sense. 

A certain rompromi -e of truth is involved in answer- 
ing "yes" or no" to doubtful questions about matters 
which are partially right. So long as the answer given is 
understood by the hearer to be only true within limita- 
tion no harm is done ; and this is the case where one 
person of average intelligence speaks to another. 

To speak the truth three things are required : one's 
words and actions must represent one's thoughts ; they 
must represent the facts, and they must convey the right 
meaning to the hearers. When the Chinese are told the 
blessed dead are clothed in white, and are placed at God's 
right hand, that does not convey the truth to the hearer, 
though it does to the speaker ; for to the Chinese white 
is the colour of mourning and the symbol of death, and 
the right hand is not the place of honour. 

If a real deliberate suppression of full truth be ever 
required by higher interests, pain at the needed com- 
promise must and should be felt by a truthful character. 
Such occasions will occur. Of course, what we call truth 
is, after all, generally relative with us and seldom absolute. 

unless dealing with what are called "axioms" or "truisms". 

10 



146 



SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 



Motives of 
Character. 



Conflict of 
Natures. 



Self-respect and self-esteem, as we have seen, are good 
qualities, but not self-righteousness, self-congratulation, 
self-depreciation, or self-approbation. 

With self-respect should go self-doubt, self-criticism, 
and humility. These are the proper complements, and 
preserve the balance. 

Motives and appetences may, as we have seen, com- 
bine or conflict. It is best, of course, when they combine ; 
it is more common for them to conflict ; for, disguise 
it as we will, we are all potential Jekyll and Hydes : 
the doctrine of two natures is not only found in Scrip- 
ture. Many men are two entirely different beings when 
drunk and sober ; many lunatics who have lost the com- 
bining power of common sense display two characters so 
different that one cannot believe them to be the same 
people. Stevenson's romance wakes an echo in the mind 
of every reader. We have in each " an old man " who 
" is not subject to the law of God, neither, indeed, can 
be " ; an old heathen epicurean, a traitor ever ready to 
respond to temptation and evil suggestions ; while, on 
the other hand, we all have a God-given moral sense, 
and those who are Christians have in addition a new 
motive of life and new principle so great that it is 
characterised as a new birth, a new beginning. The 
conflict is described by St. Paul in the most graphic 
way, which could well furnish a text for Stevenson's 
lay sermon. 

" I know that in me, that is, in my flesh (my carnal 
disposition unguided by moral sense), dwelleth no good. 
. . . For the good that I (the higher nature) would, I 



THE QUALITIES OF CHARACTER 147 

(the active will or ego) do not, but the evil which I (the 
higher nature) would not, that I (the lower nature) do. 
Now, if I (the lower nature) do that I (the higher nature) 
would not it is no more I (the ego, the true self) that do 
it, but sin (the lower carnal self, here deemed to be self) 
that dwelleth in me." x 

That is, my higher self, my new self, the self em- 
powered and enlightened by God's Spirit, and by the 
moral sense, is now to me the true ego ; and any actions 
that are done without its consent are not my actions, but 
the actions of a lower principle ; which, though I have 
had it all my life, I now refuse to recognise as a part of 
my personality ; but regard it as a foreign body that 
gives me great trouble, and that I would fain get rid 
of. 

Nevertheless, it is clear that the lower nature, psycho- 
logically and positively, forms a part of the character ; 
and the only practical way, and the way laid down by 
St. Paul, 2 to prevent its activity is never to let the 
conduct be guided by or be the expression of these lower 
principles, so that they are " as dead," i.e., in operation, 
and by degrees become atrophied by want of use. 
There is no doubt that a persistent virtuous life does 
weaken the hold of the lower appetites and passions. 

The qualities of a sound character generally are as Qualities of a 

_ .,, sound Char- 

follOWS : — acter. 

1. Intellectual activity. 

2. „ docility and humility. 

3. Reverence for truth. 

4. The will to know, or energetic pursuit of truth. 

1 St. Paul, Rom., chap, vii., ver. 18-20. 2 St. Paul, Rom. vi. 



148 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

With regard to good qualities we must remember 
we have besetting virtues that may need repressing as 
well as besetting sins. Candour, benevolence, humility 
and love itself often require moderation in their exercise. 

Vicious instincts themselves may not be the perver- 
sion or- disorder of a good character, but the expression 
of the normal, healthy (bad) character of the man, just 
as different breeds of animals {e.g., dogs) have different 
instincts, but all equally natural. Reason alone, the 
distinctive quality of our humanity, gives the power to 
lead consciously evil lives, in which case it is necessarily 
divorced from morality. 

Criminals have often abnormally clever reasoning 
powers, but all work for evil, because the moral sense 
is deficient, the instincts vicious, self-control weak, and 
self-indulgence strong. 
Analysis of We will not dwell further on generalities, but proceed 

to enumerate in detail some of the leading qualities of 
which character is compounded. We fear it will be little 
more than a barren list, as a discursive treatise on the 
virtues and vices of mankind would be both wearisome 
and useless ; indeed we have some hesitation in inserting 
this list at all. However, as we have already given 
some lists, made by recognised authorities, we may 
perhaps now enumerate some of the commoner qualities 
that make up human nature. 

We will class them in the natural order. First into 
the two great orders of GOOD and BAD. Each of 
these falls into the divisions Personal and Relative. 
The Good Personal qualities make two sub-divisions, 



Qualities. 



THE QUALITIES OF CHARACTER i 49 

Moral and Non-moral (as distinguished from immoral), 
and the Moral falls into two sections of Positive and 
Negative. The Relative, both in good and bad qualities, 
may be in connection with others or with God. The 
whole scheme therefore stands thus : — 

{, fa. Positive — 1 6 examples. 
a. Moral 1 
{&. Negative— 10 examples. 
b. Non-moral — 20 examples. 

„ „ . . (a. Toothers — 31 examples. 
B. Relative J 



a. 

\b. 



To God— 7 examples. 
II. BAD — A. Personal — 30 examples. 
B. Relative — 27 examples. 

I. Qualities of Character— GOOD. 
A. Personal. 

a. Moral. — a. Positive. — Purity, Hope, Good Temper, List of Per- 
Self-respect, Prudence (this is the contracted form of s ° 
providence, and means foresight), Wisdom, Self-develop- 
ment, Perseverance, Firmness, Rectitude, Self-esteem, 
Peace, Humility, Sense of Beauty, Admiration, Cheerful- 
ness. This last is not only a source of great enjoyment, 
but a great safeguard. It wears well and rests the mind. 

/3. Negative. — Self-denial, Self-preservation, Cau- 
tion, Secretion, Carefulness, Temperance, Reserve, 
Self-restraint, Sobriety, Self-control. 

With regard to this last we must say one word. 
Self-control, self-denial, and self-restraint may be de- 
scribed as the re-action of moral ideas and ideals upon 
impulses and instincts. Self-control always refers mainly 
to control over the lower self. Man alone can control his 
instincts and cultivate his own powers. 



i 5 o SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

The lack of self-control leads to defective qualities, 
which, if allowed, spoil the whole character and mar the 
life ; unchecked irritability of temper thus spoiled Burke. 
Systematic self-control soon makes one master of one's 
self. 

b. Non-moral (as distinguished from immoral). — 
Confidence, Simplicity, Common-sense, Energy, Dili- 
gence, Industry, AmatiYeness, Fear, Wonder, Wit, 
Humour, Matter-of-factness, Enthusiasm, Romance 
(these two are invaluable ingredients in the character of 
childhood and youth, both lessening with advancing 
years), Imitation, Timidity, Imagination (this is auto- 
matic and is unconscious memory chiefly ; it is the free 
play of thought deriving its ideas from the stores of 
the unconscious mind), Loye of Power, Knowledge, 
Intelligence (the essentials of which are discrimination, 
retention and identification). Intellectual culture, it must 
be noted, has little to do with the moral character. 

B. Relative. 

List of Relative a. To Hhers{ 'my neighbour j.— Loyc (the greatest of all), 
LoYingkindness, Righteousness, Gentleness, Sympathy, 
Compassion (these two are not the same : the former is 
an hereditary natural quality largely dependent on the 
power of imagination), Sincerity, Patriotism, Gene- 
rosity, BeneYolence, Hospitality, Unselfishness, Altru- 
ism, Self-sacrifice (this virtue, the expression of altruism, 
is strongly developed in some altruistic natures and 
curiously absent in others), Long-suffering, Patience, 
Uprightness, Straightforwardness, Meekness (this may 



THE QUALITIES OF CHARACTER 151 

be natural, or acquired as the result of a deeper know- 
ledge of one's self, or objectively by contrast with 
greater men or with God), Honesty (perfect intellectual 
honesty is one of the rarest of mental characteristics), 
Charity (or almsgiving), Indignation, Anger, Justice 
(charity is less than justice ; both should go together — 
fellow-feeling with fellow-seeing), Courtesy, Deference 
(the compliments of self-respect), Goodness of heart 
(" an innate quality of mind " (A. Bain). Real goodness 
consists in feeling a personal gain in the realisation of 
any good, anywhere, to any one), Truth (Truth, it may 
be noted, is rather a controller of action than a spring of 
it), Loye of Approbation, Friendliness (sociability), LoYe 
of Children. 

b. To God. — Reverence, Faith, Spirituality, Love to 
God, Obedience, Devotion, Conscientiousness. 

II. Qualities of Character — BAD. 
A. Personal. 

Yanity, Pride (vanity craves for the esteem of others, List of Bad 
pride relies on its own), Love of Pleasure, Selfishness, 
Sensuality, Carelessness, Foolishness, Impurity, Self- 
indulgence, Cowardice, Senselessness, " Yisionariness," 
Discordancy, Impatience, Egotism, Bad Temper, Miser- 
liness, Unstableness, Recklessness, Apathy, Self-conceit, 
Self-righteousness, Ennui or Want of Interest, Impru- 
dence, Impulsiveness, Despondency, Laziness, Fickle- 
ness, Waywardness, Stupidity. 



152 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

B. Relative. 

Malice, Yindictiyeness, Dishonesty, Suspicion, Hate, 
Rage, Lying, Quarrelling, Thieving, Killing, Cruelty, 
Brutality, Slandering, Backbiting, Injustice, Rudeness, 
Deceitfulness, Irreverence, Callousness, Hardhearted- 
ness, Shiftlessness, Faithlessness, Irritability, Treachery, 
Impudence, Arrogance, Affectation (which Locke calls 
the lighting of a candle to our defects). 

The List is We attach, as we have said, no special value to this 

of no special 

Value. list. It is not scientific or exhaustive, and probably no 

two will agree that every quality is placed under its 
right head. Its survey, and the consideration that 
probably not one-fourth of the qualities of character find 
a place in it at all, may enable one to understand the com- 
plexity of a compound into which any of these elements 
(or simple compounds) may enter in endlessly varying 
proportions. And even then we have not reached the 
expression of character. For this we must set over this 
compound a moral sense compounded of endless moral 
principles acting according to a standard that varies from 
year to year, and sometimes from day to day, according 
to the various lights by which it acts. 

And yet all this is not, as might be thought, a 
description of chaos, but of character ! 



CHAPTER X. 

CHARACTER AND THE WILL. 

It may be remembered that we devoted Chapters V. and The Mai*. 
VI. to investigating the two springs whence character character, 
flows, and we mentioned the use of the word "spring" in 
another sense, not as a source, but a force, the considera- 
tion of which we would reserve for this chapter. The 
mainspring of the expression of character is the will. 

We shall consider first of all the freedom of the will, 
which includes the whole question of moral responsibility; 
and then its effect on character. Its relation to morality 
will come next, and finally its expression in action. 

All our readers must be aware of the endless discus- is the will 

free? 

sions that have raged about the question whether the 
will be free or not, resembling in their persistent character 
the eternal disputes in theology as to whether man is 
responsible or God sovereign. The answer in each case 
is that " both are true ". Here is an instance of the value 
of affirmations over denials. Assert the will is free and 
man responsible ; but don't deny it may be controlled 
and God sovereign. Or we may change the assertion 
with equal truth, but [must never deny what appears to 
be the incompatible opposite, for we are small and our 

(153) 



154 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

mental capacity limited, but truth and God are great 
and infinite. 
Yes and No. The will is free. There can be no morality without 

freedom of will, because there can be no responsibility. 
Nothing less is required and nothing more is needed than 
our own personal freedom and responsibility in order to 
build up personal character. 

Free will and Divine foreknowledge cannot clash, 
though to human logic apparently incompatible, for they 
are two parallel lines that never meet. 

The freedom of will, moreover, is always consistent 
with the Divine foreknowledge of action ; and if of 
Divine, then of any other knowledge as well. Because 
a certain action can be predicted it does not prove it is 
not a free action. 

To be morally and practically free one must be able 
easily to resist all instinctive and unconscious impulses. 

We may be free, and yet it may be quite certain what 
use we shall make of our freedom. There can, of course, 
be no movement of will without a sufficient exciting 
cause, but we may know perfectly well in what direction 
this exciting cause will act. 

While, therefore, we are literally and absolutely free 
in theory, there are laws of character as irresistible as the 
law of gravitation. And in this lies the importance of 
character — that while I am free to form it, to re-form it, 
and to transform it as I like, and have abundant power 
available to do so, when I have formed it, I have freely 
imposed conditions myself on my own free will. 

Though a man may be free to go wrong, in fixed 



CHARACTER AND THE WILL 155 

characters it is practically impossible in certain directions. 
Of course, this remark is equally true with regard to right 
doing, though in neither case is the force of character 
absolute. 

John Stuart Mill observes 1 : "A man feels morally 
free who knows he is master of his habits or temptations. 
To be completely free we must have succeeded in the 
effort. Hence, none but one of perfect virtue is com- 
pletely free " — and yet, as we have seen, such an one is, to 
a great extent, under the power of virtue instead of vice. 
When we cease to be slaves of sin, we are described as 
slaves of God, and yet, at the same time, we are morally 
free. 

Virtue often has a tremendous conflict to attain this virtue is Free 

, . • r 1 t.i tt • d° m . Vice 

freedom, or this possession of the ego. The Homeric enslaves, 
conflict is described in full by St. Paul, whose profound 
introspection exceeds that of most men, as we have seen 
in Chapter IX. (vide Rom. vii.). Freedom is certainly 
linked in that passage, and throughout St. Paul's writings, 
with virtue. " Stand fast in the liberty wherewith Christ 
has made us free ". 2 And Christ Himself attached free- 
dom to truth : " And ye shall know the truth, and the 
truth shall make you free." 3 

The conscious will should rule, and rule in accord- 
ance with the moral sense ; but sometimes the instincts 
of character, and what may be called the unconscious 
will, prevails over the conscious will ; and " the firmest 
resolve," says Maudsley, " or purpose sometimes vanishes 

1 J. S. Mill, System of Logic, vol. ii., p. 477. 
"St. Paul, Gal. v. i. * St. John viii. 32. 



156 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

issueless when it comes to the brink of an act, while 
the true (i.e., unconscious) will, which determines per- 
haps a different act, springs up suddenly out of the 
depths of the unconscious nature, surprising and over- 
coming the conscious 'V 

If the conscious will be allied with the character, of 
course there is no difficulty. 

As a rule, I do what I would, though at all times it 
is impossible to trace all the springs that move me : so 
unconscious are they ; yet, however many there may be, 
I feel the will is free, that I need not have so acted 
unless " I chose," and that I am, therefore, a responsible 
being before God and man. 
win controls The will, as we have seen, is, in a sense, determined 

and expresses . 

character. by the character, but inasmuch as the expression of the 
character in action is at the control of the will, the will 
also forms the character by repeated action. We cannot 
will to be different, any more than we can will to play 
the violin ; but we can will to do certain actions that 
make us different by repetition, so as to attain one 
result, and modify the character. The effect of action 
is even more subjective than objective — inward more 
than outward. The outward effect may be good or bad ; 
the effect of the action on our character depends on the 
motive that caused it. Each action performed under the 
influence of motives is my own, the character being more 
definitely formed with each voluntary act. 

" Character," says Novalis, " is a completely formed 
will." 

1 Maudsley, Physiology of Mind, p. 417. 



CHARACTER AND THE WILL 157 

But the will must be strong and resolute, and often in 
the desperate conflict with inertia and positive evil needs 
all the aid it can get from the higher side of character, 
and from the enlightened moral sense, energised by 
the Divine Spirit. Many amiable, good characters are 
marred for want of will. We see plainly they might be 
so much better, do so much more good, with more will 
and purpose than they do. 

Effort and overcoming are essential factors in all 
strong characters, and determined wills are their main- 
springs. Prof. James * earnestly insists upon our never 
suffering a single emotion to evaporate without its 
yielding some practical service. Freedom is not standing 
still ; it is the power to become ; it is advance. 

We are really as capable of moulding our characters 
if we will, by force and exercise of will, as of having 
them made for us by others unconsciously. 

A habit of willing is called a purpose. It is only Source of 

. Purpose and 

when our purposes have become independent of pain or Decision. 
pleasure or internal sudden impulses that we are said to 
have a settled or confirmed character. A whole-hearted 
purpose to be true to one's best instincts ever leads 
onward. A great deal of moral power is gained by 
liccustoming our will to act with decision the moment 
the right path is clear. This decision, and the habitual 
discipline of a strong will, are essential to a good char- 
acter. " In the supremacy of self-control consists one of 
the perfections of the ideal man. Not to be impulsive — . 

»Prof. James, Principles of Psychology, vol. i., p. 125. 



158 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

not to be spurred hither and thither by each desire — 
but to be self-restrained, self-balanced, governed by the 
just decision of the feelings in council assembled . . . 
that it is which moral education strives to produce." 1 

Self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control — 

These three alone lead life to sovereign power. 

Yet not for power ; that of itself would come unsought, 

But to live by rule, acting each rule by law, 

And because right is right to follow right, 

Were wisdom in the score of consequence. 2 

At a large girls' college in the States girls deserving 
of it are put on the roll of the " Self-governed," and 
are then permitted to do as they please. 

The bravest trophy ever man obtained 

Is that which in himself himself hath gained. 3 

The Will and We will now consider the relation of the will to 

Morality. 

morality. We have seen that the will must be free in 
order that moral responsibility can exist. A person, to 
be moral, must be capable of being immoral ; a free will 
implies choice. For moral action there must be con- 
sciousness. Instincts as such, strictly speaking, are not 
in themselves moral ; what we mean by the words moral 
instincts are instincts which form the basis of moral 
action. It is clear, therefore, that moral responsibility 
does not attach to the original character, save when it 
becomes the cause of action in consciousness. I am 
responsible, morally, for all my acts, though they may be 
done in opposition to my better self, and in this sense I 
can say it was not I who did them. 

1 Herbert Spencer, Social Statics, p. 185. 
1 Lord Tennyson, (Enone. s Earl of Stirling. 



CHARACTER AND THE WILL 159 

We are not what we do, but what we approve of. 
Nevertheless, we are responsible for what we do. A 
responsible man is one, therefore, whose conscious will 
endorses the actions that may spring from unconscious 
motives. We are responsible for all actions, however 
much they may be predetermined by character. Punish- 
ment for and suffering for sin is thus really in the 
interests of humanity, and of the whole race. If fools 
and sinners did not suffer for folly and sin, the world 
would soon consist of nothing else. 

We see from all this what moral importance attaches Action of 

Will shows 

to the action of the will. All moral training is essentially Morality. 
a training of the will ; moral health implies a vigorous 
will. The two evils as to will are feebleness or indolence 
and the corruption of will by self-indulgence. The first 
moment, therefore, that moral sense is developed, the 
conflict 'begins between two springs of action, a higher 
and a lower ; and the first index of moral character is 
the choice between them. It is useless, therefore, to 
think a man is good because the analysis of his motives 
and character shows it. No man is known to be good 
until he has exhibited his worth in voluntary action. 
Morality and the exercise of the will are inseparable. 

We must now consider what constitutes right con- 
duct, without trenching too much on the domain of 
conscience and Christianity, which form the subjects of 
Chapters XII. and XIII. 

Let us hear what Plato has to say on this. 1 " Rights 

» Plato, Rep., 443, C— B. 



ido SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

{i.e., conscience) concerns itself with the inward springs 
which are man's true self and life. When he has turned 
to account his three principles (wisdom, courage, and 
self-control) like the three notes of a scale (with any 
intermediate notes), then he may be and become, no 
longer manifold in character, but one compact and balanced 
nature. He is at last prepared so to act and call that 
conduct right and good which concurs with this character, 
and that knowledge which directs it — wisdom : and on 
the other hand, that conduct wrong which may misrepre- 
sent it, and that judgment ignorance which directs such 
conduct." 
What is right Every action is right which in the presence of a lower 

Action ? 

motive follows a higher. " I do that I would not " is 
seldom literally true when we are conscious of our actions. 
We must abet to some extent every action we are aware 
of. 

Now a right action may not be positively right and 
yet relatively so. The generous man may have to close 
his hand, the merciful man to harden his heart, the 
truthful man to veil facts ; but if done with sorrow, the 
action is right, and no harm ensues to character. 

Good conduct should be righteous and right ; but 
between the two the former prevails. An action is good 
not in itself, or in its results, but in its motive. The 
motive may be known or unknown. It is better when 
known. It is well to know always why we act, or at any 
rate the leading motive. Where instinct pulls oneway 
and reason another, we must ever remember that the 
defeat of reason by instinct is t© a certain extent de- 



CHARACTER AND THE WILL 161 

moralising, even when the latter is better, while, on the 
other hand, the defeat of instinct by reason is good and 
common ; the resisting of temptation is generally a 
conflict of the latter sort. Many think that if they act 
according to the moral sense it is necessarily right. 
Not so ; it is right with relation to this, but may be 
wrong with reference to God and man ; as when St. 
Paul, with a good conscience, sent Christian men and 
women to prison To do what we think right may be 
all we are capable of at the moment ; but we should not 
rest till we are assured that what we believe to be right 
actually is so, and therefore that what we do is right. 

So much stress has been laid in this chapter on the We are mor« 

than what 

moral worth attaching to action, that it may seem as ifwe<&. 
what we do is worth more than what we are. That is of 
course ridiculous ; for the former is ever based on the 
latter, and is its expression. The only reason why it is 
of such value is because this expression depends on the 
will that causes the action ; and this will being free, 
moral responsibility attaches to it in a special way ; 
and thus the morality which we may say was passive 
and potential in character, becomes active and embodied 
in conduct. We therefore will now proceed to consider 
conduct generally. 



II 



CHAPTER XI. 

CHARACTER AND CONDUCT. 

Actions express In the former chapter we were occupied with the motive 

Character. 

power on which our moral responsibility rests. Now we 
have before us the expressed results of that power in 
what we call conduct, by which a man is legitimately 
judged of his fellows. " By their fruits ye shall know 
them " ; and this because these are the best expression 
of the character of the tree. In winter many trees are 
indistinguishable by the trunk and branches alone ; in 
spring the leaves, and, later on, the flowers, show definite 
qualities ; but, after all, it is the fruit that proclaims what 
the tree really is without doubt. 

Now character is not a product of reason or con- 
sciousness, but lies in the unconscious mind ; and as far 
as our actions are unconscious, they express it perfectly : 
but reason and conscious will can interfere and alter 
this expression, unlike the case of the tree whose fruits 
are wholly unconsciously produced. 

Therefore our conduct is not so true an expression of 

our real character as is the fruit of the tree. But we 

must touch on this again a little later. 

(162) 



CHARACTER AND CONDUCT 163 

Ribot says : x " Character is the only immediate cause 
of voluntary action. Motives are mediate causes, but the 
latter are conscious, or liable to become so; the former is 
absolutely unconscious." This remark, we think, must 
not be examined too critically, but it is true in the main. 
Motives frequently baffle scrutiny, as we have already Motives of 

Conduct. 

seen. How often do we think we have consciously 
weighed all our desires on a point, and yet at last we 
act from some other reason which has lain in uncon- 
sciousness all the time? 

"It would go hard with mankind, indeed, if they must 
act wittingly before they acted at all." 2 " Men, without 
knowing why, follow a course for which good reasons 
exist — nay, more, the practical instincts of mankind 
often work beneficially in actual contradiction to their 
professed doctrines." 3 They are, in short, better than 
their creeds ; for common sense, one of the four internal 
senses of the Aristotelians, is the judgment or voice of 
the unconscious mind. 

Conduct, indeed, is finally determined rather by 
feeling than reason ; and as a matter of fact, conduct 
is best when the reflective and the impulsive are well 
balanced. 

Acting on principle, as distinguished from expediency, 
means acting from a moral motive, rather than from the 
expected result of the action. Of course there are many 
actions, perhaps the bulk, that cannot be classified under 
either head. 

1 Ribot's German Psychology, p. 245. 

1 Maudsley, Physiology of Mind, p. 13. t Ibid» t p. 19. 



i6 4 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Noetic Consistent and inconsistent conduct refer us to the 

Synthesis. 

character which they do or do not express. The more 
educated and trained a mind, the more it selects its 
conduct and speech according to a settled character 
and train of thought, i.e., it is always relevant. This 
settled character is called by Stout "noetic synthesis". 
A yokel telling a story has no such guide, but wanders 
among associations, and loses his thread ; so also the 
aged, and where the mind is weak. The talk of an un- 
educated man springs from chance associations and ap- 
perception ; that of an educated man, as well as his 
conduct, is controlled by "noetic synthesis" (a truly 
fascinating term). 

Thought, speech, conduct, therefore, as far as they 
spring from the last idea or accident, arise from mere 
association ; as far as they are purposeful and con- 
sistent, they are due to " noetic synthesis " or char- 
acter. 

Acts that are not the result of character have com- 
paratively little influence; for it is rightly felt that 
action should be the outcome of the personality. The 
effect of any action is measured by the depth of feeling 
from which it proceeds. But we must remember tha' 
character itself is, or ought to be, growing, the " noetic 
synthesis" enlarging and consolidating. Our actions 
are the result of our character, just as character is the 
result of heredity and education. But we are free to 
improve character. Quite so ; we are free to do so, but 
our doing so depends upon the will. The desire must 
be there, and for this often an external influence — the 



CHARACTER AND CONDUCT 165 

Breath of God, the Holy Spirit — is needed to put life into 
the dry bones of a purposeless character. 

By conduct we mean our words and acts and general What is 

a r 1 < t Conduct? 

deportment. As expressors of character we have also 
our thoughts, but these reveal character only to our- 
selves. Others can only arrive at our thoughts through 
the conduct. Just as in a watch, any one may see the 
face and observe the hands move round, and judge of 
its value by the accurate time it keeps, yet no one but 
the owner ever opens the case ; so with ourselves, any 
one may judge of our value by our conduct and the way 
in which we keep God's time of day in this world, but 
only ourselves, the owners, can open the case and there 
see the mainspring (the will) that sets the works (the 
character) in motion, controlled by the balance wheel 
(the moral sense). 

Conduct is generally called forth by circumstances. 
Indeed, it is the product of circumstances and character. 
It may thus be represented as a reflex action : — 




Circumstances 
Conduct is of practical value to the mind. If the varieties of 

Conduct. 

ideas of reason are to become any part of our character 
they must be lived and acted on as they come to light. 
"The limbs of the mind," says Ruskin, "must all be 
exercised." Conduct, of course, varies at different ages. 
At first it is largely the result of the natural instincts 
modified by hereditary instinct, and is wholly uncon- 



c 

Character. 



166 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

scious. When it becomes conscious, then the child is 
" old enough to be good," that is, old enough to control 
impulse and instinct by reason. Thereafter throughout 
life conduct is the reasonable expression of character 
until, in old age, the reason is less active, and the con- 
duct becomes the expression of confirmed habits. 

Human life is three-fourths conduct, and this should 
i be, as we have seen, the expression of the character. 
Corre- For we should not depend on the belief or even on 

spondence of 

:onductand the fact of our character being good, but should express 
the same in our conduct. Many think the great point 
is to be right within and leave the outside to take care 
of itself, and are thus careless about their actions. This 
is as wrong as if we said we know the watch has good 
works, and do not, therefore, care what time it tells. 
On the contrary, we should see that our conduct is up 
to our standard of life, even in the small matters of 
dress, cleanliness, deportment and manners. Many 
minds are so great that they neglect these small 
matters ; smaller minds are absorbed with them, while 
other minds again are so petty that they depend on 
being thought great because they neglect them. The 
first is bad, the second worse, the third worst. In this 
and other ways some people's conduct reveals their 
characters ; that of others partly conceals them. In all 
we say or do we should express our formed selves (our 
"noetic synthesis"). Unassimilated principles, that as 
yet do not form part of ourselves, lie silent till absorbed. 
In great things our character will show itself without 
effort, without our knowledge or will. 



CHARACTER AND CONDUCT 167 

When conscious action is of the same character as Education of 

. the Conscious 

the UnCOnSClOUS, it Shows that OUr Conscious mind and and Uncon- 
scious. 

unconscious correspond ; when our conscious actions are 
easier, better, and more refined than our unconscious, 
it shows that our conscious mind is better educated than 
the unconscious ; in short, that education has done more 
for us than heredity. When our unconscious actions 
are easier, better, and more refined than our conscious, 
it shows the reverse, that however defective has been 
our conscious education, our unconscious mind is edu- 
cated and our heredity good. We are all well acquainted 
with these different characters, the best, of course, being 
when both have reached the same standard, and the 
unity of the man is proclaimed. 

Our friends, of course, do not analyse the grounds 
of their knowledge of us, and yet they know. We are 
all discerners of spirits by our own unconscious minds 
reading the minds of others, though consciously we 
know not how it is done. 

If the conduct is very much better than the character 
the difference is probably consciously assumed for a 
purpose ; but a slight difference is legitimate, and may 
exist unconsciously. It arises as follows : If a character 
is growing the conduct will soon be slightly better than 
the character, because it represents what we would be, 
rather than what we are : it is the growing point. If, on 
the other hand, we are degenerating, the conduct will 
again be a little better than what we are. Because, 
although growth is an aim, degeneracy is never a positive 
object or source of conduct. Degeneracy is in spite of 



168 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

our wishes rather than because of them, and conduct 
lingers behind, and still keeps up outwardly a standard 
long since departed from inwardly. 

Lastly, conduct tends most exactly to represent 
character when that character is stationary and fixed. 

Action may be prompt or slow. The strongest 
characters are slow in action, but unswerving. The 
ideal character combines, unconsciously, prompt habitual 
action in familiar circumstances, with slowness and 
wariness in unusual circumstances. 

Public and private conduct vary immensely ; the true 
character is almost invariably more exactly expressed by 
the latter. 
Character After all, however, the character is more than its 

more than . . 

Conduct. expression, however perfect this may be, just as the 
works are more than the hands of a watch ; nor, indeed, 
is action the only way in which character is expressed. 
It is exhaled from us every moment. It declares itself 
unconsciously, not by acts only, but when sitting or 
sleeping. It is shown in silence itself. We cannot find 
the full worth of Washington, of Chatham, of Sidney, of 
Essex, of Schiller, or of Gordon in their deeds, or even 
in their words. Their characters were greater than 
either. Character not only affects conduct, but conduct 
affects character ; in all these matters there can be no 
action without reaction. We are never exactly the same 
after our deeds as we were before them. 

The true development of mind lies in right doing and 
true knowing, with attention paid to ends and objects, 
and not to the growing and changing self. Our moral 



CHARACTER AND CONDUCT 169 

character is thus the outcome not only of external in- 
fluences, but of our own conduct. 

With regard to the connection of morality and conduct 
we have already spoken at length in the last chapter. 

Morality is said to be the science and art of conduct ; 
certainly the value of morality is in its practice, just as 
the end of knowledge is conduct. Conduct when it is 
good brings happiness and peace to the person. It is 
the flower and fruit of the inner life. The leaves of pro- 
fession may make a goodly show, but the fig tree must 
be cursed if it bear nothing but them ; the flowers and 
the fruit alone display the full character of the stock, and 
in bearing these the tree alone fulfils its destiny. 

The object for which we are sent into this world is to 
bring glory to God, not by our characters alone, but by 
the conduct which expresses them for good or evil. 

Still, as of old, 

Man by himself is priced; 
For thirty pieces Judas sold 

Himself— not Christ. 



CHAPTER XII. 

CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE. 

The Moral We have in this chapter to consider one of the most 

Element in 

Character. powerful factors in the production of character ; inas- 
much as when we speak of character, however broadly, 
the moral element in it is always most prominently 
before our minds, and therefore the moral sense or con- 
science has more to do with it than any other of the 
abstract or special senses. Conscience is ever active in 
the formation of character for good or evil, for it is quite 
an error to suppose that its influence is always on the 
side of right. No doubt normally it is so, but we find at 
times that it is practically enlisted on the side of cruel 
wrong and injustice. 

It will be noted that in the present day some of the 
best psychologies may be searched in vain for the word 
" conscience," to which there appears to be an increasing 
distaste ; the tendency of modern thought being wholly 
in favour of natural development as contrasted with 

Conscience or supernatural endowment and special organs. Instead, 

Moral Sense. 

therefore, of regarding conscience as a unique endow- 
ment standing by itself under the title of the moral sense, 
an attempt has been made to range it with other abstract 

senses, such as the logical faculty and aesthetics. 

(170) 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 171 

In our desire to simplify the obscure and bring life's 
mysteries within the range of the human intellect, we 
may, however, and frequently do, go too far. 

When, for instance, life is ranged with other natural 
forces, such as light, heat, electricity, we feel at once that 
what we apparently gain in simplicity, we lose in truth ; 
for while there is much in the action of vital force that 
is on a par with the natural forces, life is still an inscrut- 
able mystery, and possesses powers (especially psychic) 
to which there is no equivalent in heat, light, or even 
electricity. 

In somewhat the same way, though, as we shall see, 
conscience is an abstract sense, there is undoubtedly 
that about it which rightly prevents us from placing it on 
an equality alongside of other abstract senses ; and the 
word conscience is a convenient word to retain to mark 
this difference. It would indeed also be convenient if the 
other senses had a single word to describe their use in 
the same way. We will therefore retain the word, though 
it is discarded by so many. 

Words are often found in common parlance that are Value of Word* 

in coi 

completely ignored by scientists ; words which enshrine Use. 
ideas as old as the race, but which, because these ideas 
are obscure and possibly run counter to those current in 
science at the time, are useless to those who would limit 
their vocabulary to what they understand. Amongst 
these may be included such words as life, mind, con- 
science, and to many " God ". 

We, however, consider the retention of these and 
many other well-known words and phrases of some 



in common 



17* SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

importance, as a testimony to the existence of realities 
and truths as yet beyond scientific analysis, as well as 
being of great practical convenience. (Some phrases 
are retained for convenience only: an example, fy 
instance, is that truly misleading phrase "the sun sets,' 
for which a brief scientific substitute has been sought in 
vain). 
The idea of a The idea of a conscience is to be found in all religions, 
and is of great antiquity. In Egypt, for instance, we 
find that the oath of the ancient priesthood ran : — 

" I have never defiled my conscience for fear, or for 
favour of my superiors." 

The Greek word for conscience (o-vveiSrjcri,?) , which 
was afterwards used so largely in Christian writings, first 
occurs in the works of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 1 
shortly before the Christian era. " Best of all," he says, 
"is never willingly to lie or defile one's conscience." 

The Greek-thinking writers in the New Testament 
largely use this word. Amongst Hebrew writers, as in 
the Prophets, many equivalents are used — the " word of 
the Lord " being often used in this sense. The descrip- 
tions of its actions are very vivid and frequent in the 
Bible. 
Comparison of It may be convenient here briefly to compare the three 

the three Con- . p . TT . _ f ' 

ceptions of conceptions of conscience amongst Hebrew, Greek and 
Christian writers, as they differ essentially in character. 

In Greek writings the conscience is entirely subjec- 
tive : it is ourselves at our best. In the Old Testament 

1 Dion. Halicarn., vi., 825-15. 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 173 

it is objective : the result of the voice of God ; while in 
Christianity it partakes of both characters. 

The Christian conception is more personal and 
important than the Greek, while less so than the 
Hebrew. 

To the Greek conscience is our better self; to the 
Hebrew, God acting in us ; to the Christian, the voice of 
God in us. 

The Greek was an independent agent, conforming 
himself at his own will to the God in Nature. 

The Hebrew was acted upon, moved and guided by 
Jehovah's voice and law. 

The Christian is God's son ; free (like the Greek), 
but energised and guided by God's Spirit in him, thus 
bringing him into harmony with God without. 

The Christian conception apart from its religious 
value is the most practical and best adapted to the 
development of character 

But it is time to ask : What is this conscience — so 
universally admitted, so universally moulding and form- 
ing men's lives, and constituting the one moral natural 
force in life? 

The answers, as may be expected, are various and 

confusing. We will give a few replies before attempting 

to give one more answer to the perplexing question. 

Confucius, Plato, Aristotle, Hegel, Spinoza and Kant what is Con- 
science ? 
consider the power in conscience to be the enlightened 

reason. Epicurus, Hobbes, Bentham and Bain consider 

its power to be the instinct of individual self-preservation. 

Comte, Schopenhauer, Clifford, Smith, Hume, Hutche- 



174 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

son, Lewes, as well as Leslie Stephen, consider it to be 
the instinct of social (self) preservation. Leslie Stephen 
says : 1 " Conscience is the utterance of the public spirit 
of the race, ordering us to obey the primary conditions 
of its welfare ". G. H. Lewes says : " The social factor 
is the real cause of the elevation of the animal into the 
human, the sensible into the ideal world, knowledge 
into science, emotion into the sensational, appetite into 
morality ". 

None of these theories appear sufficient to account 
for the voice of conscience. 

Its actions and impulses are often against reason and 
are certainly neither suggested nor guided by the intellect 
while its decisions in abstract questions of right and 
wrong place it quite beyond any social or individual 
considerations. We cannot say of reason as of morality, 
that its treasures, often hidden " from the wise and pru- 
dent, are revealed to babes ". Such words, however absurd 
about learning or about science, are nevertheless true 
about this wonderful moral instinct. 

" Conscience," says Dr. Fowler, 2 " is the aggregate of 
our moral opinions, reinforced by the moral sanction of 
self-approbation or self-disapprobation which is habitually 
attached to them." 

* The conscience," observes Prof. Starcke, 8 " is placed 
in the midst of our feelings and volitions, not simply as 

J L. Stephen, Science of Ethics, p. 351. 
2 Dr. T. Fowler, Progressive Morality, p. 30. 

8 Prof. C. N. Starcke, International Journal of Ethics (Copenhagen), 
vol. ii., p. 347. 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 175 

their product (the italics are ours), but as a person ruling 
them." 

Professor Shairp says : " Conscience is the absolute in 
the soul " — a fine remark. 

The Old Testament says, in the words of Solomon : x The Bible view 
" The spirit of man is the lamp of the Lord, searching all 
the innermost parts of the belly ". 

The New Testament by St Paul says* 2 "The 
Gentiles . . . are a law unto themselves, which show the 
work of the law written in their hearts, their conscience 
also bearing them witness, and their thoughts the mean- 
while accusing or else excusing one another." 

Conscience is universal, although its action differs conscience is 

. . . Universal. 

widely according to its standard. 

Bishop Butler says : 3 " There is a conscience in every 
man which distinguishes between principles of heart as 
well as external actions, and without being consulted (the 
italics are ours), magisterially asserts itself and approves 
or condemns the man accordingly ". 

The Bible throughout declares that all have an inward 
power to discern moral truths. 

" Even of your own selves judge ye not what is right." 
The "light that lighteth every man that cometh into the 
world" includes the conscience, though it may mean more. 

There is a moral sense, a sense of duty, in all men. 
It is even to be seen in Tennyson's " Northern Farmer," 
who is represented as dead to any higher thoughts ; for 
even he " stubb'd Tharnaby waiste ". 

1 Prov. xx. 27. a St. Paul, Rom. ii. 14-15. 

* Bishop Butler, Sermon on Human Nature, p. 403. 



176 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Nowhere is conscience or the moral sense denied ; its 
evidence is too strong in every human heart. 

Darwin says : " Of all the differences between men 
and the lower animals the conscience is the most im- 
portant ". Conscience is indeed essential to humanity. 
" There have been no beings," says Dr. Robertson, 1 
" absolutely human and sane in whom conscience is 
totally inactive." 
The three ab- But conscience is not altogether an unique function, 

stract Senses. 

and we will proceed to compare and also to contrast it 
with other abstract senses of which we have spoken, and 
of which it forms one — such as the aesthetic and the 
logical senses; indeed, the three may well be grouped 
together. 

These three abstract senses are part of the natural 
equipment of every rational man. We have our ordinary 
senses — sight, hearing, etc. — by which we recognise 
physical phenomena ; and then, over and above these, 
differing from them in toto, and with no special organs 
for their use as far as physiology at present knows, we 
have these comparative or synthetic (hence a-vveiSya-^ for 
conscience), a comparing together of faculties which deal 
with the relations of things. 

The cesthetic sense deals with the relations between 
physical sights and sounds, lines, colours, harmonies, 
etc.; the logical sense with rational and intellectual 
relations ; the moral sense with relations between God 
and man, and man and his neighbour. 

1 Dr. Robertson, Conscience^ p. 6. 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 



177 



The aesthetic sense is said to be the most physical ; 
the conscience to be connected with the heart, as logic 
is with the head. The three are to a certain extent 
interdependent. 

The aesthetic sense may not ignore moral and logical 
relations, otherwise its judgments and results are bad 
and mad. 

The logical may not ignore the aesthetic or moral, or 
it becomes unattractive and unscrupulous. The moral 
faculty, if cut off from the other two, becomes repulsive 
and irrational (morbid conscience, etc.). 

Right and wrong, to a certain extent, are terms that 
may be applied to all three, and each abstract sense has 
the power of letting us know when we offend against its 
standard and laws. Each faculty is imperative, and Right and 

.... Wrong in R»- 

pronounces judgments without necessarily giving reasons lation to them. 
for them. A bad argument is abhorrent to the logical 
faculty, a discord to the aesthetic, as an immoral act is 
to the moral sense. The pain felt is not necessarily in 
proportion to the actual wrong done. Many a one will 
tell a lie without pain who will suffer agonies in the 
aesthetic sense if a dress be ill cut, or in the moral sense 
if detected in some petty meanness, or in saying some- 
thing out of place at the time. The pain felt, as we 
shall see, is in relation to the standard of perfection 
in the light of which the abstract sense acts. 

In each case we are conscious of a fact of relation (net 
a sensible or physical fact), which is as self-evident to the 
possessor of the faculty, and as clearly seen, as a visible 

percept. If we deny it we deny ourselves. 

12 



178 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Our ordinary (special) senses are receptive, not 
creative or authoritative. The aesthetic, logical and 
moral senses are creative and authoritative ; they say 
not only what the relations are, but what they ought to 
be ; therefore we feel we are doing wrong if we use a bad 
argument, create discord in colours, sounds, etc., or 
practise immoral acts. 

All these three abstract senses can be educated and 
trained as every other sense can ; or they can be neglected, 
abused or degraded. 

A fine school of painting raises the aesthetic sense 
and makes a great painter, as bad teaching degrades it. 
So with schools of morals. Conscience can be made 
more sensitive and delicate and true, or deadened and 
warped. 

If conscience were in the fullest sense the direct 

voice of God, this were impossible; though the voice 

might be stifled, it could not then be made to speak 

falsely. 

inscrutable These three senses are alike in another respect — in 

Origin of the ,,.... ... 

three Senses, that their origin is at present entirely inscrutable. Why 
should one thing be beautiful to one and not to another? 
The aesthetic sense is the most arbitrary of the three ; 
and while colour in flowers is of great value in the insect 
world and amongst birds, we can scarcely think that any 
but man truly possesses the aesthetic sense. 

The logical sense that makes axioms, etc., possible is 
a reasoning faculty whose origin is equally inscrutable. 

Conscience, the moral sense, with its still more 
authoritative voice and its power of inflicting tortures 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 179 

that can neither be endured nor escaped, also defies 
scientific investigation. Many have affected to regard it 
as the result of natural development through animals of 
simple instincts, material morality following, and suc- 
ceeded by mental morality ; but we doubt if they them- 
selves are satisfied with the attempt, which, like many 
similar ones, is ingenious rather than convincing. Con- 
science in its origin is as inscrutable as life. For both a 
Creator must be postulated. Spontaneous generation is 
as great and mischievous a fiction in morals as in bio- 
logy. 

The simplest, most scientific, and, we believe, the 
truest account of the three, and especially of the moral 
sense, is that they are given by God as special endow- 
ments of man as distinguished from the rest of creation. 
There can be little doubt that it is largely in the posses- 
sion of these three abstract senses that man is made in 
the likeness of God. They are undoubtedly, speaking 
generally, the (subjective) light of men. "The life was 
the light of men." 1 That is to say, life common to all 
organic creation in man alone was of the nature of a 
light (of reason, of sense of beauty, of morality) by which 
he could see God. 

So far we have compared conscience with two other 
allied abstract senses ; we will now contrast it with them 
in some important points. 

There can be no doubt that it is through the moral Difference be 
sense within us that we are most truly brought into relation science and the 

other abstract 
1 St John i. 4. 



180 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

with God. The aesthetic and logical senses generally 
raise no issues of spiritual importance ; and though they 
help to form character, have little relation with it looked 
at morally, in the sense in which the word is generally 
used. 

The aesthetic and logical senses do not go further 
than man and man's approval ; the moral sense looks to 
God. 

A conscientious man may be described as a moral 
artist ; but his work is of direct value not only to man 
but God, and is not only for time but eternity. This 
relation with the Infinite (whereas the others are con- 
nected with the finite) explains at once the gulf that 
separates the moral from the other abstract senses. 
Morals, moreover, differ from art in that, while in the 
latter "the end justifies the means," in the former it does 
not. 

We do not here claim for a moment for conscience 
that it is the voice of God. It is a gift of God, and it 
brings us into relationship with God. It is not merely a 
sense of good and evil, but it is a strong instinct to ac- 
cept the good and refuse the evil. It possesses an 
authority beyond appeal in common with the logical and 
aesthetic faculties, all of which have their home and 
origin in the unconscious mind ; but it goes beyond the 
other two in the penalties it inflicts upon the dis- 
obedient. Innumerable suicides testify to the unendurable 
agonies of remorse inflicted by an outraged conscience, 
which have no parallel in the action of the other senses. 

"Two things," observes Kant, "fill our minds with 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 181 

increasing wonder and reverence — the starry heavens 
above, and the moral law within." 

Conscience thus possesses us far more than we possess 
it. It furnishes moral axioms on which arguments can 
be based amongst men. It pronounces judgments ac- 
cording to the standard before it, which are binding* 
however, only on the individual ; so that in this sense 
each man is a law unto himself, as he acts according to 
his conscience ; much evil always ensuing when he seeks 
to impose this law upon others. Conscience is first seen Conscieiu* is 

Moral Con- 

with the recognition of the ego ; in short, with the sciousness. 
rise of self-consciousness, for conscience is moral con- 
sciousness. The infant at first is guided by instinct; 
to this, as reason dawns, is added precept ; and further 
on, when self-consciousness begins, the ego begins 
to sit in judgment on itself, and moral conscious- 
ness becomes active. Before a child says " I " it has not 
a distinct moral sense. Then with the " I " comes at 
once the "ought," for " I " and "ought" are Siamese 
twins that cannot be separated without the death of both. 
This power of an objective ego in sitting in judgment 
upon a subjective one is exclusively human. 

Whence comes this mysterious " I ought " which en- 
nobles men and raises them from the brutes that perish 
— obedience to which determines the rise and fall of 
nations ? 

Surely we must agree that either directly or indirectly 
it is a crowning gift to humanity from the Great Creator. 

As we have seen, the home and spring of all the 
abstract senses lie deep in the unconscious, though con- 



i8 2 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

science is ever exercised in the fullest consciousness. No 
consciousness is perhaps more vivid, that is not aroused 
by our physical senses, than the sense of right and wrong 
produced by conscience. 
Conscience and We will now see how far conscience is connected 

Cognition, . , , , - . . . . , 

Kmotion and with the three parts of the mind : cognition or the 

Volition. .11 • i r t- i i« • 

intellect, emotion or the feelings, and volition or the 
will. 

1. In cognition we get the intelligence of the moral 
action. 

2. In emotion the feeling of its value. 

3. In volition the will in carrying it out. 

Now, the first part, the discerning or intelligence of 
good and evil, is the essence of the moral sense ; and 
mark, this knowledge is wholly involuntary, and can no 
more be controlled by the will than the beating of the 
heart ; as is the case with all faculties that spring from 
the unconscious mind. 

The other abstract senses of aesthetics and logic are 
the same, but the special senses are not. We are not 
obliged to see or hear, but we cannot help admiration, 
reason, and knowing good and evil. With conscience 
also there is invariably a measure of the second part — 
emotion. We feel what is right and its value, and if 
obedient we feel at peace ; if not, we feel remorse — from 
our conscience. Conscience includes not only knowing, 
but feeling of the most acute kind. But here it stops : 
the third part, willing or volition, is no part of conscience 
proper. We are forced to know, but not to do. If we 
were, moral value would cease. Nothing that we do in- 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 183 

voluntarily, that is unconsciously or by force, can have 
real moral value attaching to it. That is why true moral 
action must ever be conducted in consciousness. Willing 
or carrying out the decrees of the moral sense is the 
action of the ego, and is determined not by conscience 
but character. 

With regard to the first two, greatest stress in con- 
science is laid on cognition by Socrates, Spinoza, Fichte 
and Hegel, and on emotion by Schiller, Herbart and 
J. Edwards. Conscientious people make most of emo- 
tion, unconscientious people of cognition. 

Conscience is, as we have seen, a natural endowment Conscience is 

...... not the Voice 

as inscrutable in its origin as our other abstract senses, of God. 
but differing from them inasmuch as being a discerner 
of moral questions it brings us into direct relation with 
the spiritual world, with God Himself (though it cannot 
be said to be in itself His voice) and with eternal issues. 
Moreover — and it is this that is most germane to our 
subject — it exercises by far the most powerful influence 
on the formation and ennobling of character. 

It is, as we have said, natural ; but it may be, and is in Conscience 
nearly every man, more or less educated. This educa- Educated, 
tion may be natural, or partly or wholly artificial. The 
former simply strengthens and develops its powers on its 
original lines, the latter distorts its faculties often to the 
extent of calling wrong right and right wrong. We will 
consider (1) the natural conscience, (2) the naturally 
educated conscience and (3) the artificial conscience as 
explained above. 

1. Conspicuous in the natural conscience is the fact 



x8 4 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

that its verdicts are based upon love and justice, and nevt, 
upon either alone. Be humane, it says, but be con- 
sistent. It condemns caprice, and it condemns selfish- 
ness. The moral ideal is to be humane and reasonable 
at once. Now this is most remarkable, because it has 
been already noticed that the most constant moral 
qualities seen in the infant are love and a sense of justice. 
God is love and its Source ; God is light, and the Source of 
all righteousness and justice. And the little child repro- 
duces in its unconscious mind these two great principles, 
from which all good comes — the fulfilling of the whole 
law. And it is on these two Divine principles that the 
natural conscience is founded. 
Conscience The natural conscience is perfect in action, but when 

differs accord- . 

ingtoits educated the value of its verdicts depends on the per- 

Standards. 

fection of its standards. Moreover, in our complex 
affairs almost every moral judgment is between a better 
and a worse, and there are all gradations, both in character 
and in ethics, till we reach Divine perfection. Truth for 
instance, as we have seen, is more often relative than 
absolute. John Stuart Mill holds that only in England 
is truthfulness a part of the average man's moral ideal. 

The power of the natural conscience is immense. 
It is often thought that the remorse it produces is the 
result of education. It is not always so. 
Conscience in Mrs. F. Hodgson Burnett 1 in her autobiography tells 

Childhood. 

us of the awful effect of conscience (in very early years 
and under no special training) when she bought a 

1 F. H. Burnett, The One I Knew Best of All, 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 185 

gingerbread for a halfpenny on credit, unknown to her 
mother. She spent agonies and sleepless nights in con- 
sequence, and yet her mother was most kind, gentle and 
easy-going, and she knew she would not be punished. 

The natural conscience at different ages varies im 
mensely; being generally most acute before puberty 
and gradually deadening in old age. That of children 
as we have just seen, is very strong in its sense of sin 
and is also severe in its penalties. This has been proved 
by Professor Earl Barnes from the result of questions put 
to some 20,000 school children in England and America- 
One question was : " If a mother gave her child some 
paints and then left the room, and the little child 
painted all the chairs blue, what should the mother do 
to her when she returned ? " The answers given showed 
that the younger the school children, the heavier the 
penalties they wished inflicted. In the lowest standards 
nothing less than corporal punishment satisfies the of- 
fended conscience. As the children rose in the school 
so was the penalty modified, until in the highest standard 
punishment disappeared, and the answer to the question 
was merely that the child should be remonstrated with, 
and shown its error. 

The extreme severity of the younger children's 
sentence may be partly due to the innate cruelty in 
childhood, as well as to an exaggerated idea of the 
young artist's sin. 

There is a difference in the sexes as to conscience, conscience In 
Its range is greater in the woman than the man, though Women. 
more easily disregarded. Men are, in a sense, more 



186 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

conscientious, that is, though their conscience does not 
speak so often, they heed it more when it does speak. 
We have said that the standard by which it speaks is not 
the same in both sexes ; for while the rightness of the 
end is more prominent before a woman than the justice 
of the means, in the man there is more particularity 
about the means than about the end. To attain a truly 
desirable and legitimate end a woman may use means 
that might at times offend the conscience of a man ; but, 
on the other hand, a man is often less pure in his aims 
and more selfish, and yet at the same time more scrupu- 
lous about the means used, which must not offend his 
conscience. We would not state this too dogmatically, for 
indeed the whole issue may be contested by many. Most 
will, however, agree on the two main points — that the 
standard in conscience in the sexes is not exactly alike, 
being higher for women than men, and that women are 
less scrupulous in obeying its voice than men. 

The moral faculty is naturally stable, but of course 
varies with its standards when educated. Hence it 
varies in action greatly in individuals, the collective 
average being much more trustworthy, showing the com- 
mon natural moral basis that exists. 
Education of 2 and 3. Turning to the education of conscience, this 

may be good is surely both racial and individual. Moral ideas, as we 
know them to-day in common speech, are the product of 
a long course of development ; though the natural foun- 
dations are never lost sight of. 

Not only the right and natural education of con- 
science is racial, but also the artificial and false as well. 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 187 

We believe that history as clearly shows that cruel 
perversions of the moral sense have been transmitted 
for generations, as that in Christendom conscience has 
continuously developed in sensitiveness and its standards 
of right and wrong. The artificial conscience is indeed 
a baneful product. By the term we do not of course 
mean that a conscience is artificially produced, but that 
the moral sense is so perverted by wrong training as 
to be made to respond to false standards. These gener- 
ally pose as true, often as Divine, and the difficulty of 
distinguishing the counterfeit from the real is a great 
source of distress to conscientious people, and a great 
cause of evil in the world. 

The artificial conscience is obviously never natural ; Artificial and 

. -it r natural 

but it may, as we have said, be passed on from parent consciences. 
to child, though of course it is almost impossible to 
distinguish such cases from very early unconscious im- 
pressions. Nevertheless, as other mental acquirements 
are undoubtedly handed on, an artificial conscience may 
be among the number. 

Both the artificial and natural education of con- 
sciences may be conducted consciously or (mainly) 
unconsciously, and both may be carried on together ; in 
which case it is most difficult to decide what is natural 
and what artificial in the moral sense, what is Divine 
and what human. 

As a matter of fact a purely natural conscience, or Rarity of a 
even an acquired one wholly on natural lines, is so rare Conscience. 
a product as almost to be unknown, at any rate in 
anything approaching civilised life. The tendency to 



188 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

form an artificial conscience, or to adulterate the pure 
conscience with artificial elements, is overwhelming : the 
one runs imperceptibly into the other. 

Observe, for instance, the seriousness and gravity 
that is the natural standard of moral behaviour in the 
presence of solemn or Divine things. To this is rapidly 
added by the Puritan the immorality of gladness or 
pleasure as such ; so that the simplest and most inno- 
cent amusements produce an uneasy conscience, simply 
because its standard has become artificial. 

Evils of an The conscience of a child is most easily affected; 

conscience, indeed a child seems to crave for artificial standards. 
These may be supplied by mere suggestion or by artificial 
parental rules (necessary perhaps) or by the customs and 
practices of the nursery. Suffice it to say that the moral 
sense is so vigorous in the child that it almost seems to 
crave occasions to exercise its activity. One of the most 
important points to observe in the education of children 
is to avoid setting up or suggesting artificial standards 
of right and wrong. An artificial conscience thus created 
in a child and obeyed for a few years may be a great 
bar to its happiness in after life ; for, curiously enough, 
the moral sense is so imperative that it keenly resents 
being slighted, and the consequences are almost as 
morally disastrous, though of course the sin is not the 
same, when the standard is artificial as when it is 
natural. 

The social artificial standards by which consciences 
are ruled are themselves the sum of the individual stand- 
ards that are found in society ; and they are ever 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 189 

changing. A person may do a thing with a good 
conscience one year, and with a bad one the next. 

For instance, in this closing year of the nineteenth 
century pleasure generally is considered less sinful than 
formerly, while excess at table decidedly more so. 

In the East a woman has a bad conscience who 
shows her face, in the West if she shows her limbs. 

With regard to conscience there is in weak natures a 
great love of submitting it to the moral standards of 
others. It is so much easier to adopt a ready-made 
standard than to make one or discern one for oneself. 

In a general way, of course, the standards of the 
social circles in which we move must be accepted and 
conformed to, and no one is justified, unless these fla- 
grantly contravene the natural laws of morality, in setting 
up a counter standard of his own. But we are speaking 
of cases where one individual leans on another; and 
perhaps still more of those cases where a person seeks, 
not only to live by another's standard, but by another's 
moral sense. If another thinks any particular course 
wrong his weak nature proceeds to direct his conduct 
accordingly, though he himself does not see the wrong. 
This can only be described as parasitic morality, and Parasitic 

Morality. 

is the death-blow to an independent healthy moral life. 
These moral parasites abound, and nowhere more than 
in the religious world ; singular to say people are by no 
means content to walk by the light God and His word 
may have afforded them, but are eternally supplement- 
ing these, to their own moral degradation, with the light 
vouchsafed to others, and by the codes (largely artificial) 



igo SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

of those whom they think more holy than themselves. 
It is worthy of notice in this connection that in St. 
Matthew xxiii. 8-10 there is a special warning against 
this tendency (pointing not obscurely to the Roman 
confessional). "Call no man your spiritual director" 
(KaOrjyijTjjs). 

No doubt others may have standards in advance of 
one's own ; but one's progress, however, does not consist 
in adopting theirs ; but in looking at the grounds upon 
which it rests, and, if one be convinced of their superi- 
ority, adopting the new standard, not in the least be- 
cause it is followed by others, but because one's moral 
sense approves its excellence, and it thus becomes one's 
own. 
False religious False religious standards make the most dangerous 
artificial consciences, and history shows the base part 
they have played from St. Paul to the present day. The 
" good conscience " of which he speaks was a good arti- 
ficial one ; for nothing but the traditions of the scribes 
and Pharisees justified him in hauling men and women 
to prison who followed Christ. 

Above all we must seek never to impose our own 
standards of morals upon others. We can appeal to theirs, 
and try and find them out, but to impose ours on them 
is to take away their moral freedom. 

"To him that knoweth to do good and doeth it not, to 
him it is sin." But if he does not know it? My moral 
sense must be limited by my standard, and if I act by 
other people's moral sense, no moral value attaches to 
my act 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 191 

Conscience, of course, like the other abstract senses, states of 

Conscience 

is found in every variety of condition. It may be bad or 
good, dead, callous, sluggish, hardened, seared, dormant, 
morbid, active, sensitive, hypersensitive, uneasy, accus- 
ing, excusing, condemning, blunted, peaceful, pacified, 
purified, defiled, approving, upbraiding, remorseful, and 
so on. 

A conscience at rest is when it is not in exercise on 
any question, but is in a condition instantly to respond ; 
a dormant conscience is one not only at rest, but asleep, 
and needs rousing ; a sluggish conscience is one which, 
when roused, acts slowly ; a blunted conscience has had 
its edge taken off by familiarity with allowed evil ; a 
hardened conscience was once sensitive, but has become 
unresponsive owing to constant neglect of its suggestions; 
a callous conscience is a confirmed case of hardening ; a 
seared conscience is one where the hardening is due to 
some striking and fearful neglect of some solemn warn- 
ing ; a dead conscience is one that is no longer responsive 
to any call. 

A peaceful conscience is one that finds no occasion 
to disapprove of actions void of offence before God and 
man ; an uneasy conscience is one that is not decided 
on the moral right or wrong of an action ; an active 
conscience explains itself, as do the accusing, excusing, 
condemning and approving consciences. 

A sensitive conscience is one in a bright light, to 
which it instantly responds ; a hypersensitive is an exag- 
gerated form of this ; a morbid conscience is one where 
this has become a confirmed condition; a pacified con- 



ig 2 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

science is one when the will has given in to its mandates; 
an upbraiding conscience is where such is not the case ; 
a remorseful conscience is one that gives its owner no 
rest in its persistent upbraidings ; a defiled conscience 
is one which has been compelled to compromise with 
sin ; a purified conscience is where the return to a right 
condition has been effected ; a bad conscience is one 
under the active sense of the transgression of moral law ; 
a good conscience may be the passive or active sense of 
obedience to the law which forms its standard. 

A morbid conscience is terrible, and is common in 
overstrained nervous temperaments, in those religions 
where introspection is excessive, and in the very early 
stages of religious and other mania. I have seen a 
patient walk up to my house, and stop and stoop down 
in the carriage drive ; and on my asking him the reason, 
he explained he had kicked one of the pebbles out of 
its place, which he had no right to do, and could not 
go on till he had restored it to its position. 
Evils of a bad The most painful condition is a remorseful conscience, 

Conscience. . 

and often surpasses any physical agony. It tortures 
like the rack ; and has driven hundreds to suicide, and 
thousands to repentance, reform and restitution. 

The most hopeless condition is the deadened or dead 
conscience. 

The accelerating rate with which moral light not 
obeyed may recede, the moral sense become deadened, 
and sin cease to be sinful is positively startling. This 
rapid darkening and eclipse of the moral sun produces 
a deeper awe than the blackness of the sin itself. 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 193 

When a man has extinguished the moral sense he 
has silenced the voice of God within him. 

" No worse idea of evil spirits," says Dr. Martineau, 
" can be formed than this, that they relentlessly exer- 
cise the resources of an intellectual nature for their own 
ends, without any hindrance from moral distinctions, or 
owning any law but that of self-will." 

In saying all this we must preserve the balance of Conscience 

- , . ,. L A . L A . . . . not in itself a 

truth by pointing out that though conscience, in a sense, Guide, 
is our guide, the value of its guidance depends entirely 
on the standard we set up before it, in addition to that 
to which it naturally responds. 

Conscience guides me, but what guides conscience ? 
is now our inquiry ; and it will be seen when we reach 
the heart of the question, that inasmuch as the ego is 
not a system or a principle but a personality, so that 
which should rule it must not be abstractions or systems, 
but a personality — God. 

Spiritual laws for social welfare are everywhere felt 
and recognized, though no one makes them. Related 
minds, classes of people, fellow-countrymen, children, 
members of similar professions, all have thus common 
grounds by these laws. 

The standard for conscience is, however, either made 
by God, by man (society), by oneself, or is inherent, 
which to us is equivalent to the first alternative. To 
disobey the first or last standards is sin, to disobey the 
others not necessarily so. 

Each one creates for himself a permanent individual Artificial moral 

Standards. 

moral ideal which also acts as a standard. It is the 

13 



ig 4 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

image of the sort of man we think we ought to be. If 
we live up to it the conscience is at rest ; if not, we 
are uneasy. Artificial standards are created by the 
man himself, by public life, school and university life, 
business and professional life, by the services, by clubs, 
by churches, by society cliques, by newspapers. The 
ideal or standard of professional morality or business 
morality notoriously differs from private morality, so 
that people are said with much truth to have two distinc- 
tive consciences, one for home use, and another for the 
daily work or office. That is to say the moral faculty 
is called to respond to two distinct standards at different 
hours of the day in the same person. It is, of course, 
a truism to say there can be but one right standard. 

It is more important to observe that both standards 
are probably more or less artificial, but that the business 
one is almost certain to be the more corrupted. 
Low standards This corruption is not without its defenders as being 

of Morality in . . 

Business. necessary in the present day to the accumulation of 
wealth. We have, indeed, men who have nobly stood 
out against this pernicious doctrine, men of weight 
and practical experience, and who have endeavoured 
in the main to carry on their businesses on good moral 
principles current in ordinary life. But the very nobility 
and interest that attaches to such men is in itself, alas ! 
evidence of their rarity ; and we greatly fear the larger 
number accept the double standard as a necessary evil 
— and use it. 

On the other hand, in some professions the moral 
ideal is excessively high, calling one to lay down one's 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 195 

very life for one's duty ; and it is probably this element, 
that can be discerned more or less in the services and in 
the medical profession, that has always surrounded them 
with a special distinction. 

A deliberate lowering of the standard of conscience 
is a moral catastrophe, and the prelude to the downfall 
of the soul, not the less so because the standard is 
lowered for the love of money. The danger is that a 
man " may forget or deny the existence of immaterial 
ends at all, not from the temptation to plunge into 
licence, but from absorption in that 'virtuous materialism' 
which is even more deadly V 

The present condition of the commercial standard of Serious Danger 

... . r 1 • of this. 

morality is a most serious question for this country ; 
for business is gradually predominating over all other 
human activities. Wars themselves . are now largely 
waged on commercial grounds, and commerce is more 
powerful than rank, or art, or science. 

The standard by which the pursuit of money is con- 
ducted, as this pursuit gets more and more the absorbing 
passion of mankind, will naturally become more and 
more universal, and all will agree that there could not be 
a greater downfall for humanity than the universal lower- 
ing of the common moral standard of life to the com- 
mercial level. 

We naturally ask, therefore, " why should not the its Cause and 

Cure. 

standard in buying and selling be as high as in other 
professions, and as great pride be taken in maintaining 

1 M'Cunn, The Making of Character, p. 109. 



196 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

its morality and honour as in fighting, or ruling, or 
healing ? " The real difficulty appears to lie not so much 
in competition, for that rages fiercely in the professions 
where the standards are much loftier, as in the wholly 
selfish nature of the pursuits. In other professions there 
is even an element of unselfishness, but the pursuit of 
money seems to foster the lower and stifle the higher 
instincts. It is the "love of money," not money per se, 
that is the " root of all evil ". 

In spite of this we are not without hope that the 
standard will be gradually raised , and nothing could 
conduce more to the welfare of our country and to our 
true prosperity than this. I do not say England may 
not compare favourably with many other nations : but 
that is not the question. " It is precisely," says M'Cunn, 
" in the sphere of . . . commerce that ideals are most 
needed to uplift the practice of the world ; and unless 
those who lead these find time besides commercial 
ambitions for moral ideals, the life of citizenship will 
remain the imperfect school of virtue we have seen it to 
be." 1 

The improvement cannot be forced. It must take 
place by the increased pressure of public opinion, and of 
the diffusion and power of Christian principles. 

If business morality were once raised to the level of 
true Christian morality, most of our great labour pro- 
blems would be solved, as well as many others which are 
solely due to this perversion of the moral sense. 

1 M'Cunn, The Making of Character, p. 125. 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 107 

Returning to the analysis of conscience, all our senses Senses and 

Sensations. 

whether common, special, or abstract, have their appro- 
priate sensations. In common sensations we thus get 
pain and pleasure : in the special senses we get sight or 
blindness, hearing or deafness : in the mental sensations, 
taking the negatives — vanity may be mortified, love 
chilled, pride humbled, hope disappointed, modesty 
shamed. In the same way the conscience may prick or 
approve or condemn us. 

This preliminary "prick " is the voice of conscience 
rousing us ; and the approval or condemnation is the 
voice or sensation of conscience pronouncing on the 
action that caused it to " prick ". 

The conscience, if dormant, is first awakened by some 
word, or thought, or deed, and then it speaks. If not 
dormant, it speaks without delay. 

Conscience has from its moral sense — perception and The three 
judgment : from its sense of duty — obligation or precept. 

When the social standard is the only one that speaks, 
and the divine and personal standards are silent, con- 
science sometimes does not speak till aroused by the 
voice or opinion of others. Thus many are not dis- 
turbed in conscience till they are found out ; while the 
most shameless, being dead altogether, not even then. 

Of the three voices, the voice of God is the most 
important to the moral being, then the voice of the 
ego or self, and lastly the voice of others. 

It is sometimes easier to satisfy the social standard 
than the other two ; it is generally, however, easier to 
satisfy the personal than the social standard. 



ig8 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

God speaks It should again be repeated here emphatically that in 

through . . . . • . . . 

Conscience, no sense is conscience in itself the voice of God. As 
well may a piano be said to be the voice of Paderewski. 
It is the instrument through which he can express him- 
self; but if played upon by a school girl, it responds 
with equal facility to her crudities as to the fine touch of 
the master. " Conscience is that faculty which may be 
brought into contact with the will of God " (Canon 
Gore). It is that sense through which God can and 
does directly speak to the soul of man, through which 
His will can be impressed on the heart. Conscience 
alone convicts of sin, and reveals its power, its stain, its 
guilt. Naturally, it is endowed with the power of dis- 
tinguishing broadly between right and wrong ; but arti- 
ficially, it may be perverted to any extent. 

When it speaks it is inexorable : no external con- 
siderations can change its decrees. It may be obeyed or 
disobeyed, but cannot be cajoled ; and the penalties it 
exacts for disobedience are frequently truly awful. 

The Pricking The amount of pain we suffer from conscience is due 

to two factors : the intensity of the light brought to bear 
upon it, and the earnestness of our will in a right direction. 
The first case we find illustrated is those sinners who 
have no feeling or care whatever until a bright light is 
brought to bear upon the conscience. It is then alone — 
not when the deed is done, but when they are convicted 
of it — that they are "pricked in their hearts". The 
second is found in an opposite class of earnest moral and 
earnest religious people with high ideals, who suffer their 
pain from falling short of their aim. 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 199 

In fact and in brief, the pain produced by conscience 
in the hardened and careless is due to external causes — 
the intensity of the light — while the pain experienced by 
the earnest is due to internal causes — falling short of 
their ideal. 

Now the pain felt, as we have previously shown, bears 
no proportion to the amount of error or sin. A man in 
the service may commit various breaches of the deca- 
logue and be not nearly so much upset as if he find out 
he has broken one of the Queen's regulations or the un- 
written laws of the mess. 



The pain is most felt in connection with that life and Pain is in Pro 

portion tc 
Value set 1 
the Ideal. 



portion to t! 

standard for which the man or woman lives. If this be Value set on 



that of the social world, that is the tender spot ; if it be 
his profession, it is there he suffers ; if it be his country, 
to be a traitor is the deadliest sin ; if the life be 
Christian, and the standard the will of God, it may be 
sin unknown to any but God that may cause the deepest 
pain. 

Conscience acts according to general laws, but only 
in particular instances ; it does not lay down principles, 
though they move it. 

Besides right and wrong in action, there is a large The Neutral 
neutral zone where these questions do not enter. No 
doubt theoretically everything must be relatively right or 
wrong, but practically it is not so. We do not praise our 
butler for not carrying off our spoons, and our con- 
science does not condemn us if we happen to walk on the 
wrong side of the pavement 

Conscience does not speak of what was, or is, or will Moral Sens* 



aoo SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

be, but what ought to be. There is no real logical basis 
to the " ought," or why " ought " is " ought," any more than 
there is for the idea of beauty. It is an inherent sense, 
but its power on individuals and even nations is amazing. 
It is the moral sense that really controls New York and 
London ; not the police or the laws. For this " ought " 
men have been burnt and racked and torn asunder, and 
in all ages have " suffered for conscience' sake " ; and 
even in the vilest of men its voice is heard. Conscience 
shows the right way, but gives no power to follow it ; 
the more sensitive the conscience the more need is there 
to have power to follow its leadings ; and this can only 
be found in a character of high Christian principle. To 
be "strengthened with all might by His Spirit in the 
inner man " (i.e., unconscious mind) is really the formation 
of this character. 

The action of conscience, even when normal, may be 
slow in slow temperaments ; but as a rule it is so quick as 
to seem instantaneous, simply because it is not the result 
of conscious reason, which always requires time, but of 
intuitive perception that wants none. 

The conscience goes behind the deed itself, and sits 

in judgment on the motives that prompted the acts, and 

often drags these to light, to the dismay of its owner. 

Conscience In conclusion we will give one or two maxims before 

Obeyed. we finally consider the effects of conscience on character. 

We should always seek that the conscience should be 

enlightened and its standards raised, but we should never 

sin against it, even when the standard is artificial : that 

is, we should never do what we believe to be wrong. It 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 201 

may not be wrong, but we may feel it is. On the other 
hand, a course of action may be wrong and we may not 
know it, and look back on our past conduct with added 
light. We may not approve the act, but we feel no 
remorse, because we recognise that at the time our 
motive and acts were in accordance to the standard wc 
then had. 

Two more maxims : " Happy is he that condemneth 
not himself in that which he alloweth ". 

" To him that knoweth to do good, and doeth it not, 
to him it is sin." 

The effects that flow from a good conscience are 
summed up in the mens sibi conscia recti, which is a high 
and sufficient reward. " Given a sound (moral) judg- 
ment," says Aristotle, "and all the virtues will flow in 
its train." 1 

Peace flows the moment the path of duty is discovered 
and followed amidst conflicting alternatives. 

The principles on which conscience acts are the Principles on 
principles of character, and may be grouped as follows: — science Acts. 

Self-sacrifice, Self -reverence. — These two neutralise 
individual selfishness, and are the complements of each 
other. 

Righteousness, Love. — These two neutralise social 
selfishness, and are the complements of each other, and 
express the Divine character. 

From all that has been said on conscience it needs 
but few words to show how largely in all moral worth 

1 Aristotle, Ethics, vi., cxiii., p, 6. 



202 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

character depends upon the right education of and 
obedience to this marvellous sense. 

We can see also by comparison with the other abstract 
senses the bearing on conscience or character. 

A painter paints under the guidance of his aesthetic 
sense — as arbitrary in its way as conscience. The 
aesthetic sense itself is educated in schools of art, which 
provide standards, and the result is twofold. Works are 
produced (acts), and a style or character is formed which 
stamps the artist, and becomes a part of himself. 

So with the moral sense. Obeyed, good acts follow, 
and, sinking into the unconscious mind, the character 
itself is ennobled with each such act. Disobeyed, evil 
results, the character deteriorates, and the man himself 
is defiled. On the other hand, the practical value of 
a conscience depends upon the character, just as the 
character depends on the conscience. 
Conscience The best conscience in the world soon becomes value- 

and Character. ■ 

less and silent and useless unless there be a will pro- 
ceeding from a formed character to carry out its decrees. 

It is this that is the main difficulty, and herein 
consists the power of a virtuous character formed in 
early life, and herein is seen the enormous value of the 
inward energy of God's Spirit in fortifying our will in a 
right direction. 

Character seems to be the bank in the unconscious 
mind on which conscience draws. If the deposit be small 
in the bank of character it soon becomes exhausted, and 
the cheques of conscience are dishonoured. 

The right use of each of our senses has its good 



CHARACTER AND CONSCIENCE 203 

effect on character ; but the right use of the moral sense 
far transcends all the others put together. 

Conscience, we see, does not make a man virtuous 
unless he follow it. Peace of heart or conscience, 
moreover, never is attained by making it an object, but 
by obeying its voice. " A good man," says the " wise 
man," "shall be satisfied in himself." 1 

The records of conscience too are lasting, whether for 
or against us. Every good act builds up and strengthens 
the character by the approving verdict of conscience ; 
and every idle word weakens it by its condemnation. 

The end and sanction indeed of conscience is the 
perfecting of self and others in the order of a perfect 
life. 

"They who will do His will shall know of the 
doctrine." The moral order is not made, but gradually 
revealed and discovered. The horizon of duty recedes 
as we advance, and ever leads us onwards and upwards. 

The effects of acting conscientiously may, however, obeying Con 
involve much sacrifice. The conduct of many affairs involve much 

t 1 1 1 t 1 11. Suffering. 

may have to be altered, and perhaps some callings 
abandoned altogether ; though we believe where the 
conscience is healthy and not morbid this will be rare. 
I know one case where the senior partner in a large 
business of a special nature had to resign between ten to 
twenty thousand pounds a year for conscience' sake. 
Protestants have often had to give up all they possessed 
to keep a good conscience. Self-interest (apparent) and 
the moral law are often in opposition, and it is the right 

1 Prov. xiv. 14. 



2o 4 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

choice between the two that makes the man. The 
honest man must have motives and acts that will stand 
self-examination. Intellectual honesty demands self- 
criticism. The honest man will forego pleasure, will 
suffer pain and loss for truth and consistency. On 
the other hand, a man is considered mean and con- 
temptible who, having done wrong, seeks to justify 
himself; the reason being that the consciences of his 
critics condemn him, and they know that his own con- 
science has done the same, or ought to have, according to 
a common standard ; and that he must be self-condemned 
therefore all the time, and his effort at justification 
neither true nor honest. 

Conscience shuts us up to one life if we would know 
inward peace, and that life is obedience to its voice ; and 
if it be a conscience whose standard is the highest and 
Divine, its voice will then be the voice of God within ; 
and the life will be eternal, and the peace enjoyed, that 
of God "which passes all understanding ". 



CHAPTER XIII. 

CHARACTER AND CHRISTIANITY. 

We now turn to a consideration of supreme importance 
at the present time, and that is the connection of char- 
acter with Christianity. 

We have indicated already in various places that Christianity 

and Modern 

very many views are held on this relation. The chapter Views. 
on ethics alone shows this, for instead of closing as it 
should have done with Christian ethics it has been 
necessary to supplement these by a further system 
which we have called " modern ethics ". 

That these do exist should be frankly acknowledged, 
for nothing whatever is to be gained by adopting the 
ostrich policy of burying one's head in the sand and 
denying the obvious. 

The time has undoubtedly come for it to be clearly 

understood that there are now many sober, thoughtful and 

honest men who earnestly believe and teach that they 

know and follow a more excellent way than Christianity, 

That they look on this religion as merely a bygone 

episode in the world's history, an act in the great 

drama of mankind, of which the interest to us now is 

chiefly historical. Consistently and candidly they declare 

(205) 



206 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

there is no via media, and that to all who would be 
abreast of the times the Bible, while still regarded as 
a valuable English classic (in Greek it is not a classic) 
containing more or less incomplete moral codes, can 
no longer be the light of their path. Their philosophy 
varies much in detail, but generally agrees in a more 
or less cultured Hedonism, based on a self-caused evolu- 
tion ; their scheme is the advancement and improve- 
ment of mankind, so as to secure the maximum of 
pleasure for themselves and others in this world; any 
future world and any present Divine power or control 
being not actually denied, but dismissed as a negligible 
factor in the grand scheme. 

The horizon of this modern thought is hard and 
well defined, and is bounded by the material, and 
thus commends itself to (very) common sense and to 
the " practical man," who is tired of hearing the 
" passon abummin' o'er his ye'ad ". 
is the old While fully recognising the popularity, engaging 

simplicity, and practical character of schemes of life 
based on some such foundation, we take a different 
and more old-fashioned standpoint, and we believe 
that to exclude Divinity is not only to leave the great- 
est problem of our being unexplained but inexplicable, 
and cannot therefore regard any scheme that practically 
excludes it as scientific. It seems to us painfully appar- 
ent that what modern thought gains in breadth is due 
to loss in depth ; that it is clear because shallow, and 
definite because limited. 

Moreover, if it be true, as we believe, that every 



CHARACTER AND CHRISTIANITY 207 

man carries a witness to the Divine within himself, we 
think it doubtful if any one of our modern apostles is 
really finally and exhaustively satisfied with his own 
creed. We therefore take our stand upon Christianity 
in its revelation of a personal God and Saviour, of a 
future life, and of moral responsibility, and upon its 
view that the glory of God rather than the mere 
pleasure of man is the highest object in life, and the 
most powerful force in the formation of character. 

There is also an extensive class which has found a There is a 

• 1 • • Middle Course 

modus Vivendi between the views just advanced and the 
modern speculations (which are really ancient revivals) 
previously mentioned. 

These, eliminating from Christianity all they con- 
sider objectionable, and borrowing chiefly from its ethics 
without encumbering themselves with its distinctive 
doctrines, unite what they select with modern specu- 
lations and humanistic ends, and then bid for support 
from both sides. One might, however, almost as well 
have Buddhism pure and simple as this emasculated 
Christianity, and one turns with relief from such incon- 
gruities to the noble and lofty pre-Christian ethics of 
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, which represented the 
highest flights of human moral thought before the 
revelation of Christianity. Now, however, when what 
professes to be " the true light " is shining, and what 
claims to be a Divine revelation is in our midst, it 
seems to us to demand either honest acceptance or 
equally honest rejection. For either of these one in- 
stinctively feels a respect which it is difficult to yield 



208 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

to the middle class, who would select the rays they fancy 
out of the white effulgence, and reject the rest, while 
they still appropriate for themselves and their followers 
the name of the religion most of whose essential doc- 
trines they deny. 

Many of our acutest thinkers see clearly that morality 
and religion, or the worship of the Divine, are distinct ; 
and it is fatal to limit Christianity to ethics. 1 Let it be 
clearly understood and never denied, therefore, that, 
while we cannot have true religion without morality, and 
that the truest religion finds its exposition in the highest 
morality, we can and do have morality (as generally 
understood) without religion. The greater includes the 
less, though the less cannot include the greater. 
is Christianity There can be no doubt that no choice on earth is so 

to be the . 

Standard of important as whether or no we are to accept Christianity 

Character? 

as the standard and goal of character. So imperious 
are its claims, and so absolute the distinction between 
accepting and rejecting, that endless remorse must one 
day fill the soul of the one who now rejects the higher 
for the lower — Christianity for modern ethics. "We 
have to choose," says Ruskin, in his impassioned lan- 
guage, " between a Love that cannot end, and a worm 
that cannot die." 

1 Christianity has of course two parts — the means and the end of true 
life — the means being the implanting of new power and spiritual force in the 
soul of man and his moral reconciliation to God by the one atonement ; the 
end being the worship and glory of God, not by sacrifices and ritual, but 
by the practice of the highest Christian morality and self-sacrifice. 
These moral sacrifices of the New Testament distinctly take the place of 
the ritualistic sacrifices of the Old ; and it is thus that ethics and Chris- 
tianity coalesce in " ends," if not in " means ". 



CHARACTER AND CHRISTIANITY 209 

If Christianity be lost, there is nothing left to form 
character comparable to faith, love and hope. More- 
over, duty itself divorced from the real and eternal soon 
loses its character and becomes degraded to mere ex- 
pediency. Surely much that has passed recently in a 
neighbouring country is a melancholy illustration of this. 1 
Dr. C. H. Pearson observes, 2 speaking of those who have 
lost all Christian ideals or hope of immortality as in- 
centives to a higher life : " Our morality will become 
emasculate tenderness, our mental discipline the day-book 
and invoice, our intellectual pleasure the French novel ; 
and yet there seems no reason why such men should not 
increase and multiply ; and thus the savour of vacant lives 
will go up to God from every home." 

It is a great thing in these matters to make a good Yes, fork it 

best 

and irrevocable beginning, hence the value of a " sound 
conversion " when crossing this Rubicon. Carlyle's ever- 
lasting "yea" must be pronounced with emphasis in 
favour of the Divine and the Eternal, if we would escape 
the eternal night of an everlasting "no ". 

Let a man, therefore, own and fulfil his relations, 
human and divine, with a willing heart, and he will 
develop his character on the highest lines. 

" It is well," says Maeterlink, 3 " men should be re- 
minded that the very humblest of them has the power to 
fashion after a Divine model ... a great moral person- 
ality, composed in equal parts of himself and the ideal." 

1 Dreyfus Case. 

a Dr. C. H. Pearson, Natural Life and Character, p. 357. 
* Maeterlink, The Treasure of the Humble, p. 190, 
14 



210 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

With a Christian ideal we get a stricter sense of justice, 
a more complete realisation of duty, more delicacy of 
feeling, greater refinement of manner, more kindliness 
and quicker sympathies ; in short, although Christianity 
is more than mere morality, no morality is so lofty as 
that formed on a Christian ideal. 

At the same time, it is easy to criticise many noble 
characters, for the greater the polish on a stone the more 
are the flaws, as well as the perfections, revealed. The 
finer the character the more difficult is the advance, and 
the more frequent the shortcomings. The Christian 
ideal of perfection is indeed nothing less than perfect 
obedience to God and perfect communion with Him and 
one another in His light. 

We talk of obedience, but such a service is oerfect 
freedom. It is the "truth" alone that can make us 
free, not " freethought " — and not only free, but happy 
— and not only happy, but beautiful. 

" When a man," says Emerson, " lives with God, his 
voice (character) shall be as sweet as the murmur of the 
brook and the rustle of the corn. He will weave no 
longer a spotted life of shreds and patches, but he will 
live with a Divine unity. He will cease from what is 
base and frivolous in his life, and be content with all 
places and with any service he can reach. He will 
calmly front the morrow in the negligency of that trust 
which carries God with it, and so has the whole future in 
the bottom of the heart." 

Not that, if we are to accept the Bible teaching, we 
ever see the full development of Christian character here. 



CHARACTER AND CHRISTIANITY Mi 

The soul is a seed, and though it may leaf and bud and 
blossom now, we do not see the full fruition in time, for 
" it doth not yet appear what we shall be ". 

This Christian principle, this inward energy of the Christianity 

r r i . lies in the Un- 

Divine Spirit, lies deep in unconsciousness. By virtue conscious. 
of the unconscious mind our conscious will is often over- 
powered, and our true inner selves speak. That which 
we are is what we really teach, not what we say. True 
progress is seen in a man's tone, rather than heard in 
his words. If he has not found his home in God, his 
speech, his opinions, his acts all unconsciously confess it. 
If he has found a creature's only true centre, the Creator 
shines through him. The tone of the seeker is one ; that 
of the possessor is another, and the latter should be the 
humbler of the two. The centre round which a life 
revolves cannot be hid. 

One may perhaps be allowed to quote here a few 
words of Dr. Creighton's, when the Bishop was address- 
ing the Christian endeavourers at Alexandra Palace this 
year (1900). He says : " More important than what they 
said was the way they said it. The spirit that radiated 
from them was the most important part of their influ- 
ence in the world. . . . The world could do without 
their ability and zeal, but not without their reflection of 
Christ's temper. It was by their temper in the small 
things of life, by their grace, humility, and self-sacrifice, 
that they would turn the hearts of others to a power 
the world did not contain." 

One evolves, perhaps, at first the unusual attractive- 
ness of the personal character with which one feels a 



2X2 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

special sympathy ; until at length one sees the attraction 
is due to the common factor of a greater presence — 
God. 
The Difference The essential difference between Christian and the 

between a 

christian and highest character evolved on purely natural lines lies 

a natural 

Character. perhaps most largely in the change of centre round 
which the deposit of character, so to speak, is made. 
The highest type of the purely natural pre-Christian char- 
acter is the Stoic ; and the centre of the Stoic character 
is the individual ego — self. He is Nature's nobleman 
governed by a natural noblesse oblige. The fundamental 
law upon which his character is built up is the fundamental 
animal law of self-preservation. It is the product of the 
most enlightened self-interest. On the other hand, the 
Christian character is built up under the law of love (St. 
John xiii. 34), not self-interest but charity forms the 
nucleus and centre. The true Christian does not even 
try to make himself a noble man ; but, leaving himself 
to God, he tries to help and ennoble others. The true 
Christian's eyes are so fixed on Christ that he is free 
from all self-regarding. He "follows the Lamb" and he 
finds the Master not in Jerusalem with the Pharisees, but 
in Galilee going about doing good among the publicans 
and sinners. 

True Christianity is undoubtedly a homologous, as 
distinguished from a heterologous idea ; of the difference 
we have spoken in Chapter VII., p. 99. It is clear that 
there is that within that can and does respond to the Pres- 
ence and law of God without. If the material world is 
in three dimensions our spirit is in a fourth, to use the 



CHARACTER AND CHRISTIANITY 313 

language of transcendental geometry ; 2 and thus one side 
of it is ever " naked and open to Him with whom we have 
to do". 

If we will let our thoughts flow, and the stream run 
on, we may often learn much — for God is behind the 
soul. "God speaketh once, yea twice, yet man perceiveth 
it not . . . then He openeth the ears of men, and sealeth 
their instructions." 2 

" Amid the mysteries," says Herbert Spencer, " which 
becometh more mysterious the more they are thought 
about, there will soon ever remain the one absolute 
certainty that man is ever in the presence of an infinite 
and eternal energy from which all things proceed." 

An animal, not having a human mind, can only look The Response 
on blankly at the abstract thinker, the attitude of prayer, 
or the face of remorse, though quickly responsive to 
sensations common to its nature ; and ours shows that 
we, in understanding Divine attributes and qualities, 
must have that within us that enables us to comprehend 
them. 

We are wiser than we know, and if we will not stifle 
our inspirations, they will surely lead us on to further 
light, though we may not at the time be in the least 
conscious of the end towards which we shall neverthe- 
less progress if humble enough. 

. . . Looking within and around me, I ever renew, 
With that stoop of the soul, which in bending, upraises it too, 
The submission of man's nothing-perfect, to God's all-complete, 
As by each new obeisance of spirit, I climb to His feet. — Browning, 

1 A. T. Schofield, The Fourth Dimension, (Swan Sonnenschein.) 
* Job xxxiii. 14, 16. 



ai 4 



SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 



The hidden and unconscious depths of the soul once 
recognised explain much. It has long been felt that the 
doctrines of Christianity, of the implanting of a new- 
nature, of the in-dwelling of the Holy Spirit, just as much 
as the source of a conscience, are not directly realised 
within the sphere of consciousness. 

In religious services for the " deepening of the 
spiritual life " it is to be noted how prominent a place is 
given to the " cessation of effort," to the " casting out of 
self," to " lying passive" and " yielding up our powers," 
etc. A well-known Christian teacher, the Rev. Dr. 
Andrew Murray, writes : " Deeper down than where the 
soul with its consciousness can enter, there is spirit matter 
linking man with God ; and deeper down than the mind 
and feelings or will — in the unseen depths of the hidden 
life — there dwells the Spirit of God." 
Necessity of We have referred to the " new birth," which is hardly 

' better understood by our philosophers now than it was 
by Nicodemus of old. 

Plato in his Republic in describing the art of dyeing 
the true Tyrian purple says : " The wool must be purely 
white first, otherwise this profound colour soon washes 
out." So, if the heart is as white as wool, the character 
truly dyed will never change. But is the heart as white 
as wool ? The Bible only echoes the voice of all ex- 
perience when it answers " no ". 

What then is the " new birth " ? Is it not, under the 
power of the Holy Spirit, the impartation of a pure and 
holy principle to guide the will and life in accordance 
with the will and word of God ; and is it not evident 



CHARACTER AND CHRISTIANITY 215 

that any " dyeing " that is attempted before this prin- 
ciple is imparted will " wash out " ? 

Since this is in no sense a theological treatise, we 
will not enter here on the question when this "inward 
grace " is imparted. 

Its sphere is the unconscious mind. At the first birth 
a child has no conscious mind as far as we know, or it 
would be conscious of its birth ; and when a fresh 
principle is introduced as the commencement of a higher 
life the influx of the new spirit is unsearchable, and 
the only proof of its existence lies in its fruits in 
consciousness. 

In the new life it appears the Holy Spirit is the sub- cbamcter is 

x-» 1 • • «-r.i • not suddenly 

jective, and God the objective power. The new birth changed. 
gives new motives and objects rather than new faculties. 
The character, therefore, is not suddenly changed, but 
rather gradually transformed by new objects. Those 
parts of the character that cannot now be used atrophy 
from disuse, while those that are useful are freshly 
moulded as required. 

" In the life of every man," says Maeterlink, 1 " has 
there been a day when the heavens opened . . . and it 
is almost from that very instant that dates this true 
spiritual personality." 

We wish we could endorse the " every man " ; it is 
true of all who know "the truth ". 

It is the actions, the fruits of the character, that must 
show the new inspiration : there is a new principle of 
faith in active exercise ; the lamp of hope is lighted, and 

1 Maeterlink, The Treasure of the Humble, p. 172. 



2i6 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

burns steadily, while the flower of Divine love fills the life 
with fragrance. 

To love one's neighbour is after all to love in others 
that which is Divine and eternal. All men are my neigh- 
bours ; but not all equally so : those who are next or in 
greatest need are most so. Charity begins at home and 
near home. Moral introspection is an essentially 
Christian practice. I am my brother's keeper, and so 
far called to bear the world's need and sorrow, for which 
I am utterly inadequate. Here Christianity comes in, 
and reveals the existence of an Infinite and efficient 
Agent for this infinite work in which we are permitted 
to be fellow-labourers. Christianity takes new views of 
my duties in all the three spheres of self, neighbour, God. 
Holiness and righteousness are new and guiding principles 
of life, and by them and other qualities is the inward 
motor power exhibited. 

Moral goodness can never be conferred, it must 

be acquired. We may be even accounted righteous, 

but cannot be practically righteous save by doing 

righteousness. 

Dependence The spirit of dependence upon God is (as marked in 

and Obedience. . . . ,. 

Christian men as obedience. 

Ruskin observes l : " There is nothing so small but 
that we may honour God by asking His guidance, and as 
thus every action done, even to the drawing of a line or 
the utterance of a syllable, is capable of a peculiar 
dignity in the manner of it ; so also . . . still higher is 
the motive of it. For there is no action so slight or so 

1 J. Ruskin, Seven Lamps of Architecture, Introd., 4-6. 



CHARACTER AND CHRISTIANITY 217 

mean but it may be done to a great purpose . . . most es- 
pecially that chief of all purposes . . . the pleasing of God." 

Although, however, the new principle may have 
entered the life, the old is by no means gone, and not 
only acts, as we have seen when considering the two 
natures in Chapter VIII., but is capable of concealing 
itself under the name and guise of Christianity. For 
instance, no worse selfishness is seen anywhere than is 
often found under a religious guise. Religious humility 
may recognise inherent sin and weakness with no further 
result than the formal statement (that loses all its force by 
constant repetition) that we are all " miserable sinners ". 
Self-righteousness and Pharisaical pride are not unknown 
in characters otherwise good, as well as more than traces 
of conceit, ^nalice and all uncharitableness. 

The Christianity of practical life is, alas ! by no means The imitation 

.',„.«. • . of Christ, 

always so idyllic as some of our quotations depict. 

If the subjective power for the higher life be found in 

God's Spirit, the objective is not derived from a study of 

doctrines, however sound and dry, but from the imitation 

of Christ our Saviour. His is the model character, and 

the deeper and more profoundly it is studied the more 

do we begin to understand what is comprehended in a 

perfect character. The more His life is contemplated 

the greater the ability to copy it, for, as Bickersteth so 

beautifully says 1 : — 

Not living only, He infused new life ; 
Not only beauteous, for He beautified; 
Not only glorious, for He glorified. 

1 Bickersteth, Yesterday, To-day, and For Ever, 



2i8 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

And there is more in it than this. We see pre- 
eminent amid all the rival systems of ethics set before 
us as purposes of life the simple and sublime end of 
Christian life as declared by St. Paul 1 : " We are pre- 
destined to be conformed to the image of His Son ". 
The Goal of That, according to God, is the end and goal of a rightly- 

' ordered human life, and meanwhile we are commanded 
to " follow Him, to walk as He walked, to follow His 
steps," in short, to make Him the pattern, example and 
standard of life, as He is predestined to be its end. Now 
can any one cavil at this ? Is there a nobler ideal within 
the whole range of human thought ? Have we within 
the whole circle of other religions one single utterance so 
authoritative as regards the object and plan of life ? It 
is an immense relief to have such a purpose and end 
placed before us, and we think no worthy substitute will 
ever be found for it. " Come happiness or sorrow," says 
Maeterlink, 2 " the happiest man will be he within whom 
the greatest idea shall burn the most ardently." 
Follow Christ's Christ is the only ideal worth following, the only 
Personality that can draw the whole world 

He alone can fill a human life with love, joy, peace, 
long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, tem- 

\ perance — with that Christian character which is one of 
the hall-marks of the true precious metal ; and this, as we 
have already said, not alone by making Him the ideal, 
but by having within that new spring and power that 
both give the desire and ability in any way to copy it. 

1 St. Paul, Rom. viii. 29. 

1 Maeterlink, Wisdom and Destiny, p. 43. 



CHARACTER AND CHRISTIANITY 219 

Character is not formed by introspection ; though the 
power that forms or transforms it is within. 

Abstract ideas can never possess and control a per- 
sonal soul ; we must have as our Owner and Inspirer a 
personal God. No standard indeed of character is 
possible but Christ. What would He do? is the ques- 
tion of chief interest to His followers. All our greatest 
teachers insist on this. 

The only thing that can satisfy a human mind is an 
object of devotion, not himself, to which he can feel it 
worthy and right to devote his life and talents. 

The pursuit of the unattainable is what ennobles. The Pursuit of 
" A pupil from whom nothing is ever demanded which 
he cannot do," says Mill, 1 " never does all he can." 
With such an ideal as Christ, the Standard of perfection, 
we are ever growing, never grown ; ever perfecting, never 
perfect ; ever attaining, never attained ; and this preserves 
humility, as we have said, and stimulates pursuit. 

1 J. S. Mill, Autobiography, p. 32. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

CHARACTER AND DESTINY. 

Sow an act, reap a habit ; sow a habit, reap a character ; sow a 
character, reap a destiny. 

OUR study of the springs of character is completed, and 
if this chapter be added it is merely because there are 
often those who like to have what they have been reading 
briefly summarised, so that they can better carry away 
into practical life those points that seem to them of value. 
This short summary is therefore given, together with a 
few words on the formation of character, and the connec- 
tion between character and destiny. 

chapters I. ani Character then, is the mental expression of our per- 
i sonality, and its home is in the unconscious mind. This 
' personality is unknowable save to God, as it can never 
be wholly brought into consciousness or wholly seen by 
others. Fictitious or partly fictitious selves abound of 
various sorts, and are made consciously or unconsciously 
by their owners for various purposes. Others, as a rule, 
know us better than ourselves, partly because they can 

Chapter in. see more readily the unconscious impress of the character 

on the body and in the thousand details of daily life. This 

impress of the character on the body, and especially on 

(220) 



CHARACTER AND DESTINY 221 

the face, has led to the construction of a pseudo-science 
of character (phrenology), which localises character in 
a series of " organs," represented by " bumps " in the 
cranium. 

No real science of character has, however, been con- 
structed, the nearest to it being the science of ethics, 
which is the abstract science, of which morality is the art, Chapter IV. 
and character the concrete expression. Ethics are often 
set in the place of Christianity as a substitute for it ; but 
Christianity is more than ethics : it is a religion, and a 
religion has power over character which ethics have not ; 
the difference may be compared to that between a train 
and Bradshaw, between a power and a guide. 

Passing from these preliminary considerations to 
character itself we have considered its springs. The 
original source is undoubtedly heredity ; but on close Chapter v. 
examination we see that it is hardly actual character 
that is inherited, but rather a number of potentialities 
and tendencies which the after-life converts into virtues 
and vices and more or less prominent features of character. 
The force of early education in determining this is very 
great ; hence the importance attaching to child culture. 
The great power of this education, which is almost wholly 
unconscious, is in forming habits, which force of habit 
may be regarded as the second great spring or source of 
character, acting as it does in two ways : first, in modify- 
ing the original tendencies of heredity ; and secondly, in 
adding fresh qualities to the character. The value of Chapter vl 
good habits to character, and the corresponding evils 
when such habits are bad, cannot be overrated. 



S32 



SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 



Habit is induced by environment and ideals, or what 
is around and before us, the choice of both being largely 
under our control. The value of good and inspiring 
ideals have in their influence on character perhaps the 
larger share in determining the destiny. 

Chapter vii. The growth of character proceeds on the same lines 

as the body, by means of food and exercise ; the food 
consisting of ideas and the exercise of the various circum- 
stances of life through which we pass. The special value 
of suffering and various forms of adversity to noble char- 
acters is very great, and is one of the speediest ways of 
raising the diligent pupil to the sixth form of life's school. 

Chapter viii. The analysis of character presents great difficulties, 
for this complex mental compound derives its activity 
and value not alone from its infinitely varying ingredients 
and the endless proportions in which they combine, but 
to the power and direction of the moral energy or will in 
bringing them into action. 

All we can really do, therefore, is to enumerate the 
better known varieties of character without examining 

Chapter IX. their composition in detail, and make lists of the qualities, 
good and bad, that may enter into their composition. 

We must, however, lay very great stress here upon 
the fact that the real value of a character consists not 
alone in the excellence of its elements, but upon their 
harmonious combination ; so that the character is a com- 
pound, and not a mere mixture; a symphony, not a 
discord ; well-balanced and stable, not cranky or one- 
sided. 
Chapter x. We now pass on to the motor power or spring, in the 



CHARACTER AND DESTINY 223 

sense of mainspring or force of character — the will. Here 
the first thing to observe is that the will is practically 
and consciously free ; and moral responsibility, therefore, 
can, and does, attach to its actions. 

A little consideration will show that it is in the 
exercise of the will that merit or demerit attaches to 
character. 

A close connection exists, therefore, between morality 
and will, the finest character in the world being valueless 
if it does not include a strong and vigorous will. 

This leads us on to conduct or the expression of will chapter xi. 
and of character. A man is rightly estimated by his 
conduct. What he is has little value to others if it be 
never expressed. Of course we can only very roughly 
judge of a character by the actions; but at any rate we 
see its most active and leading qualities, even if the 
more passive ones are hidden. The value of the con- 
duct depends on the motives that move the will, and to 
analyse these is often a difficult task. They largely 
spring from the moral sense within, which we call con- 
science. 

This conscience is seen, on closely looking at it, to be chapter xn. 
one of the abstract senses that distinguish humanity from 
the rest of the animal kingdom. It differs from reason or 
the logical faculty and aesthetics or the love of the beauti- 
ful in bringing us into connection with not only abstract 
but spiritual truths. Considerations of morals and right 
and wrong bring in the question of responsibility and God; 
and although the moral sense as such can in no way be 
said to be the voice of God in the man, there is no doubt 



224 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

it is the channel through which He often speaks and is 
the faculty that brings us most into His presence. 

In civilised man conscience is always more or less 
educated, either along natural and true lines, or artificially, 
by conventional or false, and even vicious standards, so 
that it can be made to pronounce wrong to be right and 
darkness to be light. In this dependence on the standard 
before it, it resembles a sundial, which, while always 
correct when in the sunlight, can be made to say mid- 
night is noon-day by the artificial light of a candle. The 
light in which the conscience acts is therefore all-impor- 
tant, and the higher and truer the standard the greater is 
the value of the voice of conscience. This voice, moreover, 
should be heeded, or it soon ceases to speak. 

The two practical points, therefore, are to beware of 
false standards, and of stifling the warnings of conscience. 
Chapter XIII. Lastly we come to Christianity and its effects on 
character. This is not, as we have seen, merely a system 
of ethics. It is a religion and a revelation. It sets be- 
fore us in explicit terms the highest purpose for which 
life can be lived. It gives us not a set of doctrines, but 
a Divine Personality, who as a man Himself lived an 
absolutely perfect life, as an Example to those for whom 
He afterwards died as Saviour. It also supplies an 
inward force or spring of action in the Holy Spirit, who 
gives our moral sense the needed power to overcome our 
lower nature. 

The standard Christianity requires can never be 
attained, and the purpose it proposes is not realisable in 
this life ; the example it sets before us can never be success- 



CHARACTER AND DESTINY a«5 

fully copied ; and it is the impossibility of reaching this 
absolute perfection, this unattainable height and depth 
of Christianity, that gives to it its supreme power over 
the character, making it ever to advance in growth and 
keeping it ever humble in spirit. We thus consider that 
there is nothing to compare with true religion in its 
power of forming a noble character ; and, shall we add, 
nothing that we know of that can form a baser one than 
a counterfeit of it. 

What connection then has character with destiny ? Character and 

Destiny. 

Time was when the idea itself would have seemed foolish 
if not impious. Did not the fates cast their baleful 
shadow over the polished worlds of Greece and Rome ; 
and were not the gods of the East and of Egypt mysteri- 
ous representatives of the powers of nature in whose laps 
all human destiny lay ? whom it was needful therefore 
to propitiate, often with sacrifices, often human lives, 
to keep them in a good humour, and secure their aid. 
Human character was then at a low ebb, for although 
lofty ethical principles were taught by the great founders 
of Buddhism, Confucianism and Greek philosophy, theirs 
were doctrines without power; guideposts rather than The Story of 
guides, for they supplied no motive force, they furnished nsiam y* 
no inspiring ideals ; and Christianity then rose upon the 
world of dark fates and powerless ethics. The conflict 
between the old and new began very early. 

Looking back over the ages, one is indeed surprised 
to see how soon, almost from the very first, Christianity 
was corrupted and adulterated with the superstitions it 
came to supersede. 

15 



936 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Before long the new religion degenerated into a 
replacing of the old fatalism with superstition, and 
raising ethics in some respect to a higher level than was 
known before. But through all there still flowed the 
pure stream of true Christianity, as it has done all through 
the dark ages, though often in subterranean and little 
noticed channels. 
Protestantism. In Protestantism, with all its faults of detail, we see 
the reaction against this world-wide corruption of Chris- 
tianity : though with the emancipation of thought that 
accompanied it the opposite extreme was soon reached. 

Revolting against degrading superstitions little re- 
moved from idolatry, and a religion that was the death- 
blow to progress, advanced thinkers, aided by the rapid 
progress of all the sciences, for the first time relegated 
supernatural considerations and influences to a very 
secondary place, and put before man that he, and he 
alone, was the arbiter of his fate ; that all that was, was 
cause and effect ; that the only duties he owed were to 
himself and his neighbours ; that faith was naught and 
works were all. 

This revolt of intellect did good as well as evil ; but, 
as is ever the case with the human clock, the pendulum 
had now swung too far. 

Casting off superstition, men would fain dispense with 
the Divine altogether. 

This was, however, found impossible, for God had 
two witnesses left, even when His Word was discredited. 

There was the mysterious sense of right and wrong 
wiinin — whence came it ? There was also the earth 



CHARACTER AND DESTINY 227 

around, and, as Kant says, " the starry heavens above " 
— whence came they ? 

So the unknown God having revealed Himself in Position 

to-day. 

Christianity, and that Revelation being by many rejected, 
is again sought for by philosophers, as He was in Athens 
2,000 years ago. Such is human progress Godward ! 

But what has all this to do with character and 
destiny ? Simply this much. As long as we have two 
rival schools — the one crying aloud for faith and the 
other for works — we shall never arrive at the true rela- 
tion of character and destiny, for the "believers" tell 
us destiny depends on faith and not works, while the 
"workers" tell us it depends on works and not faith. 
As we have said elsewhere, we are often right in what 
we affirm, but wrong in what we deny, for truth is 
greater than ourselves ; therefore we should affirm and 
deny not. If we say destiny depends on faith, well 
and good ; if we say it depends on works, also well and 
good. Let us be content with the two affirmatives, 
which have the highest authority ; and dispense with 
the negatives. 

Character, then, as shown in works or conduct, ac- Faith and 
cording to the latter school, is the seed that determines 
destiny here and hereafter. But what says the former ? 
Does it not deny this ? No, in no wise. For the faith 
that saves is the power that can alone produce the 
character or conduct that determines our eternal destiny 
for good ; faith shows itself by works. 

Our position, partly in this world (for there are the 
circumstances of birth, accident, etc., to be considered) and 



228 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

wholly in the next, is determined by character ; but the 
character that can alone please God and dwell with Him 
must be inspired by faith, and energised by the Holy 
Spirit. " Sow a character and reap a destiny ! " Yes ; 
but it is impossible to sow the right character, unless we 
have the moral force within, the sower as well as the 
seed ; and this we cannot find in the elementary natural 
conscience alone, but in the possession and guiding of 
our wills by God's Spirit. 

Now, in this view, we have gained much. We do 

not exalt faith at the expense of works, or works at the 

expense of faith ; but seek to give each its place as laid 

down by our inspired teachers. 

The Greatness Consider then how great a thin? is character both for 

of Character. & & 

this world and the next. It has the casting vote in our 
destiny. 

" Nothing befals us that is not of the nature of 
ourselves/' * 

A man in this world has exactly the place his 
character makes for him. If he be clever and unscrupu- 
lous and selfish he may rapidly get his reward in riches 
without honour, in power without love. A nobler 
character may be poorer in wealth, but richer in respect, 
and in the eyes of all whose opinion is worth having he 
is the one to be envied. Riches may be amassed by the 
worst of men and means ; but a good character implies a 
good man, for the character is man's self. 

And the hereafter? While faith alone can inspire 
those acts that are truly pleasing to God, He in His final 
1 Maeteriink, Wisdom and Destiny, p. 31. 



CHARACTER AND DESTINY 219 

tribunal will render " to every man according to his deeds," 
— his conduct, the expression of his character. Let us 
then, in view of the supreme importance of this subject, 
try and give finally a few practical hints as to the forma- 
tion of character, first by others, and then by oneself. 

Parents nowadays are slowly and dimly beginning Formation ot 
to see that they stand face to face with a most inter- Parents, 
esting and difficult task, with which is bound up in a 
way that was little understood a few years ago the 
welfare and destiny of their children. Fatalism has 
had its day, cause and effect are more clearly seen 
everywhere, the sowing and the reaping follow each 
other without question, and, as we have seen, faith no 
longer casts a doubt on the reality of this process, but 
appears in its true light as the only power that can 
enable it to be carried on to the glory of God. 

As parents, therefore, we must ever accustom our- 
selves to look at our children through a mental Rdntgen 
screen (which, as most of us know, enables us with a 
certain light to see the whole inner workings of the 
human body). So we, disregarding external details, 
must regard in our children the nascent characters ; we 
must be able to pierce through the outward covering 
and discern the spirit growing before our eyes. But 
we must not only be admiring spectators ; we must 
earnestly pray for wisdom as gardeners, and, using all 
the knowledge that is accessible, must seek to nip the 
evil tendency in the bud, to uproot the weed, while 
we encourage the tender plant and water the growing 
shoots. 



230 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

Twelve Tools For all this the gardener has his tools, tools Nature 

for forming 

Character. is ever using herself, but tools also that with reverent 
care may immensely help the character to develop and 
grow on right lines. 

1. We have the power of forming habits of good, 
of moral value in the young child as none others 
have. 

2. We can control the child's environment, so that 
suggestions of good, physical, mental and moral, and 
not of evil, are ever unconsciously sowing themselves 
in its brain. 

3. We have the power, by example and story, of 
filling the child with inspiring ideals, so as to give 
direction to its will and energy of growth to its char- 
acter. 

4. We can feed the child's mind with ideas, the 
character of which is nearly all under our control, and 
on which the quality of the child's future character 
so largely depends. 

5. We can exercise the child's growing moral powers 
with circumstances, not too smooth, so that "overcom- 
ing " and " courage " may be learned and hardships 
endured ; not too rough, so that the young growth 
may not be discouraged. 

6. We can, by watching the various tendencies, balance 
the one against the other, so as to prevent the character 
straggling too far in any one direction. 

7. We can strengthen the will ; and make it carry 
out its own designs, and accustom it to act with energy 
and decision. 



CHARACTER AND DESTINY 231 

8. We can educate the moral sense with reverent 
care ; keeping it tender in its sensitiveness to evil, and 
only putting such standards before it that we know will 
hold good through life. 

9. We can increase the sense of responsibility \ first to 
oneself, then to others, and, above all, to God. 

10. We can by direct teaching instil the leading 
moral principles of action ; and can imbue the young 
mind with the sequence, and all-importance, of cause 
and effect. 

11. We can by inspiring an unquestioning reverence 
and faith in God y and in Christ as our Saviour, cultivate 
the spirit of humility and dependence on the power of 
His Spirit to produce in the life the character that 
pleases Him. 

12. We can understand and obey the two Bible 
maxims for child training : " Train up a child in the way 
he should go, and when he is old he will not depart 
from it," and "Offend not, hinder not, despise not one 
of these little ones ". 

When we turn to the training of one's own character 
the question is a different one. A parent can do all we 
have indicated without in the least turning the child's 
thoughts too much inwardly or producing any unhealthy 
introspection or self-consciousness. But in training one's 
own character how is this to be avoided ? 

Only by not making it an object. 

Let the ideal for which life is being lived be clearly The ideal of 
realised; let it be the highest and best; and let it be e * 
steadily pursued, and all that would turn it aside into 



232 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

lower and easier paths be suppressed. The character 
will thus grow in the likeness of that which it is following 
and if that object be Christ, the character will evidently 
and naturally become Christian. 

At the same time it may be remembered that good 
habits can be formed to overcome evil as long as life and 
mental faculties endure ; that surroundings always help 
or hinder ; that ideas still feed or poison ; that circum- 
stances are still of the utmost use in producing vigour 
and self-control ; that conscience may be used or abused, 
cultivated or deadened ; and that lastly and finally 
religion may be made a collection of dead dogmas which 
dwarf and atrophy the character, or true Christianity 
may become the breath of life, the inspiring ideal, that, 
by " sowing '' the character aright, " reaps " the Eternal 
Destiny hereafter, where " self " at last is gone, and 
where the personality is but the reflex of the Eternal ; 
where " non nobis " is the eternal cry, and where Christ is 
all in all. 



LIST OF BOOKS ON THE SUBJECT. 



Abercrombie, On the Moral Feelings, 
Anon., Character in the Face. 
Aristotle, Ethics. 

„ Moral Philosophy. 
Bailey, S., Letters on the Human Mind, 
Bain, A., Emotions and Will. 

„ On the Study of Character. 
Bastian, C, Brain as an Organ of Mind. 
Bosanquet, B., Psychology of the Moral Self, 
Bryant, D. S., Educational Ends. 

„ Studies in Character. 

Buchanan, Moral Education. 
Carpenter, W. B., Mental Physiology. 
Christian Review, Vol. III., " Forming of Character ". 
Coombe, A., The Constitution of Man. 
Courtenay, L., Constructive Ethics. 

„ " Science of Character " (Nat. Rev. % i8go), 

Davison, The Christian Conscience. 
Dawson, W. J., Making of Mankind. 
Donaldson, H. H., The Growth of the Brain, 
Emerson, Essays. 
Evil and Evolution. 
Ferrier, D., Functions of the Brain, 
Fowler, Progressive Morality. 
Froebel, Education of Man. 
Galton, Education and Heredity. 
Gilman, Laws of Daily Conduct. 
Groser, H. S., The Kingdom of Manhood, 
Harris, G., Moral Evolution. 
Hartman, Von, Philosophy of the Unconscious. 
Henderson, Character in Common Life. 
Hesperian, The, Vol. I., " Forming of Character *\ 
Hillis, N. D., Man's Value to Society. 
Huxley, Evolution and Ethics. 
Hyde, J., Elements of Character. 

(233) 



234 SPRINGS OF CHARACTER 

International Journal of Ethics, 1890-98. 
James, W., Principles 0/ Psychology. 

„ Psychology. 

Jordan, F., Anatomy in Character. 
Kant, E., Anthropologic 

„ Critique of Pure Reason. 
Ladd, The Philosophy of Mind. 
Lewes, C. H., Problems of Life and Mind. 
London Magazine, Vol. III., "Personal Character "« 
Lotze, Microcosmus. 
Maeterlink, The Treasure of the Humble. 

„ Wisdom and Destiny. 

Martin, A., L* Education du Caractere. 
Martineau, D. J., Types of Ethical Theory, 
Maudsley, H., Body and Will. 

„ Physiology of Mind. 

Maurice, F. D., The Conscience. 
McCosh, Dr., The Motive Powers. 
M'Cunn, The Making of Character. 
Mill, J. S., System of Logic Ethology, 
Miller, J. R., Building of Character. 
Mind, 1894, 1896, 1897. 
Morgan, C. Lloyd, The Springs of Conduct, 
Morison, J. C, On Conscience. 
Morley, J., Modem Characteristics. 
Murray, D. C, Handbook of Ethics. 
National Review, 1890, " Science of Character" 
Nisbet, J. F., The Human Machine. 
Paulham, F., Les Caracteres. 
Payn, C. H., Character-Building, 
Perez, B., Le Caractere. 
Pierson, A. T., Life Powers. 
Plato, Republic. 

Pollock, D. J., in Book of Health, 
Porter, Noah, Human Intellect. 
Preyer, W., The Infant Mind. 
Reynolds, E. W., "Elements of Character" (University Quarterly 

Review, Vol. XII.). 
Ribot, E., German Psychology. 

„ Heredity. 

„ Maladies de la VolonU, 
Robertson, J. D., Conscience. 
Royce, Dr., Studies of Good and EviU 
Ruskin, J., Collected Works. 



LIST OF BOOKS ON THE SUBJECT 235 

S , J. C, Character and its External Signs. 

Schofield, A. T., Another World, or the Fourth Dimension, 

„ ,, The Unconscious Mind. 

Schopenhauer, The Human Nature. 
Scripture, Prof., The New Psychology. 

„ „ Thinking, Feeling, Doing, 

Sidgwick, H., Method 0/ Ethics. 
Smiles, S., Character. 
Smythe, T., Christian Ethics. 
Spencer, Herbert, Data of Ethics. 
„ „ Data of Psychology, 

„ „ Education. 

„ „ Social Statics. 

Stephen, Leslie, Science of Ethics, 
Stewart, A., Our Temperaments. 
Stout, G. F., Analytical Psychology, 
Sully, J., Sensation and Intuition. 

„ The Human Mind. 
Temple, E., Life's Questions. 
Theophrastus, The Characters. 
Tweed, F. B., "Formation of Character" (University Quarterly R*~ 

view, Vol. XIII.). 
Wait, Lehrbuch der Psychologie, 
Wedgwood, The Moral Ideal. 
Wentworth, Logic of Introspection. 
Whittaker, Prof., Essays in Psychology, 
Williams, C. N., Evolutional Ethics, 
Wundt, Beitrage sur Theorie, etc* 

,, Ethics. 
Ziegler, Social Ethics, 



INDEX. 



Abdalrahman on pleasure, 136. 
Absolute and relative, 141. 
Abstract senses, conscience, 171. 
„ „ The three, 176. 

„ „ right and wrong, 

177. 
„ „ Inscrutable origin 

of, 178. 
„ „ God-given, 179. 

„ „ and conscience con- 

trasted, 179. 
Abstract and special senses, 178. 
Action, Unconscious, and merit, 59. 
„ and ethics, 72. 
„ and responsibility, 159. 
„ and morality, 159. 
„ Right, 160. 
„ expresses character, 162. 
„ Character expressed by, 162. 
„ Slow and prompt, 168. 
A. D. and children, 62. 
Adverse circumstances, Value of, 

103. 
Adversity, Jeremy Taylor on, 104. 

„ and character, 130. 
Advice, Prof. M'Cunn on good, 95. 
^Esthetic sense, 176. 
Age and character, 128. 
„ and conscience, 185. 
„ „ „ Earl Barnes on, 

185. 
Aim of life not character, 92. 
Altruism and egotism, 142. 
Altruistic character of woman, 126. 
„ and egotistic motives, 133. 
Analogy between mental and phy- 
sical, 8. 
Analysis of chapters, 220-224. 

„ of character, 1 1 2-136, 222. 
,, of qualities, 148. 
Antiphonal virtues, 140. 



Apperception, 96, 127. 

„ Maeterlink on, 96. 

Aristotle and Plato, Ethics of, 46. 
„ on a good conscience, 201. 
„ on philosophical inquiry, 
136. 
Art and science, 42. 
„ „ „ as educators, 107. 
Artificial self, 21. 

„ education, Evils of, 66. 
„ and natural education, 106. 
„ conscience, 187. 
„ „ Evils of, 188. 

„ moral standards, 193. 
Assertion of the unconscious, 1x4. 
Atavism and heredity, 61. 
Atmosphere of thought, 105. 
Attitude of body and mental states, 

32. 
Augustine, St., Ladder of, 90. 

„ „ on the seven Chris- 

tian virtues, 51. 

Bad habits, 74. 
„ qualities, List of, 151. 

Bain on phrenology, 39. 

Balanced characters, 137. 

Balance of truth, 144. 

Balancing character by parents, 230. 

Bank of character, 202. 

Bastian, C, on unconscious mind ac- 
tion, 70. 

Bentham on pain and pleasure, 134. 

Bible and looking-glass, 17. 
„ maxims and parents, 231. 
„ view of conscience, 175. 

Birth, The new, 214. 

„ „ „ What is it ? 214. 

Bishop Butler on conscience, 175. 
„ of London on Christian life, 

2X1. 



a 3 8 



INDEX 



Bodies, Strong and weak, 33. 
Bodily attitudes and mental states, 

32. 
Body affects the character, 32. 
„ altered by character, 30. 
„ and character, 29-41, 220. 
„ and mind, Interaction of, 29. 
Boors and gentlemen, 23. 
Bryant, Dr. S., on introspection, 
116. 
„ on self-consciousness, 18. 
„ on selfishness, 142. 
Burnett, F. H., on childhood's con- 
science, 184. 
Business, Low morals in, 194. 
„ standards are low, 195. 
„ „ Cause of low, 195. 

Caird, Prof., on forming character, 

103. 
Canon Gore on conscience, 198. 

Cardinal virtues, Four, 4. 
Caricatures and portraits, 27. 
Carlyle on circumstances, 102. 
Carpenter on environment, 75. 
Cause of low business standard, 195. 
Centre of character, 212. 
Change of character, Maeterlink on, 

215. 
Chapters, Analysis of, 220-224. 
Character, Analysis of, ir2-T36, 222. 

„ affected by the body, 32. 

h » by health, 33. 

„ affects conduct, 168. 

„ and adversity, 130. 

„ and age, T28. 

„ and the body, 29-41. 

„ and Christianity, 205-219, 

224. 

„ and conduct, 162-169, 
223. 

„ and conscience, 170-204, 

202, 223. 

„ and consistency, 91. 

„ and cultivation, 93. 

„ and destiny, 220. 

H „ ,, connection 

of, 225. 

„ and deterioration, 27, 92. 

„ and dress, 109. 

„ and ethics, 42-55. 

„ and food, 109. 

M and growth, 88-111. 

M and habit, 69-87, 221. 

M and heredity, 56-68, 221. 



Character and the Holy Spirit, 164, 

„ and ideals, 8r. 

„ and intellect, 72. 

„ and introspection, 82. 

,, and life, 10. 

„ and love, 216. 

„ and memory, 131. 

„ and the mind, r-12, 226. 

,, andmodern progress, 108. 

„ and personality, 13-28, 

220. 
„ and responsibility, n. 
„ and the unconscious, 3. 
H and the will, 1 18, 153-161, 

222. 
„ and training of thought, 

164. 
„ and true religion, 225. 

„ an organic whole, 1. 
„ Bailey's elements of, 119. 

„ balanced by parents, 230. 

„ cause of action, Ribot on, 

163. 
H Centre of, 212. 

„ Change of, Maeterlink 

on, 215. 
„ Christian and natural, 

212. 
„ Christianity standard of, 

208. 
M of Christ, 140. 

„ Classification of, 37. 

N Components of, 118. 

„ Conscious education of, 

109. 
M controlled by will, 156. 

„ determines destiny, 227. 

„ Effects of circumstances 

on, 101. 
M Effect of workman's life 

on, 79. 
M Effects of professional life 

on, 77. 
M ,, of one on another, 

80. 
Epictetus on, 11. 
expressed by actions, 162, 

166. 
Formation of, 9. 
Formation of, by parents, 

229. 
Greatness of, 228. 
Grouping of, 130. 
growing and stationary, 
27. 



INDEX 



239 



Character growth, Rate of, 91. 

„ Habit is a spring of, 71. 

„ How does it grow ? 90. 

„ Ideas as the food of, 98. 

„ Importance of, 10. 

„ impressed on the body, 

30. 
„ Ingredients of, 137. 

M in two sexes, 121. 

„ in the face, 31. 

„ Insight into, 25. 

„ is myself, 13, 28. 

„ Life not aim of, 92. 

„ like ferments, 80. 

„ like ozone, 81. 

„ Maeterlink on useless, 

132. 
M Mainspring of, 153. 

M may be transmitted, 60. 
f , Meaning of the word, 1. 

M J. S. Mill on formation 

of, 172. 
H Moral elements in, 170. 

M more than conduct, 61, 

168. 
„ Motives of. 11, 132, 146. 
„ not changed suddenly, 

215. 
„ of a gardener, 79. 

M of a miner, 81. 
M of doctor, 78. 

„ of men, 124. 
„ of sailor, 77. 

„ of soldier, 78. 

„ of woman, 121. 

„ Principles of, 119. 

M Prof. Caird on forming, 

103. 
„ Purposeless, 132. 

„ Qualities of, 137-152, 222. 

M Rare, Emerson on, 131. 

„ Rational, 138. 

n Religious, of woman, 126. 

„ Science of, 36. 

„ The springs of, 2, 57. 

H Stationary, 8g. 

M Summary of growth of, 

no. 
„ Twelve tools for, 230. 
„ Types of, F. Jordan on, 

40. 
„ Value of, 228. 

„ Various means of discern- 
ing, 41. 
„ Varieties of, 128. 



Character, Well balanced, 137. 

Child training, G. Macdonald on, 65. 

Childhood's conscience, F. H. Bur- 
nett, 184. 

Children and consciousness, 112. 
,, Value of habit in, 70. 

Children's character, F. Galton on, 
63. 

Children, Conscience in, 184. 

Children's six parents, 61. 

Children and A. D., 62. 

,, and Rontgen screen, 229. 

Children's individuality, 64. 

Child's soul, love and light, 63. 

Choice of Christianity, Ruskin on, 
200. 

Christ, Character of, 140. 
Imitation of, 217. 

Christ's example, Following, 218. 

Christian and natural character, 212. 
„ conception of conscience, 

173. 
„ doctrine, Importance of, 

50. 
„ ethics, 49-55- 
„ ethics psychological, 50. 
„ Greek and moral ethics,45. 
„ ideals, 85, 210. 
„ ideals, Pearson on loss of, 
209. 
Christianity and character, 205-219, 
224. 
„ and egotism, 53. 

„ Impossible standard of, 

225. 
„ lies in the unconscious, 

. 211-214. 
ft and modern views, 205. 

M the standard of cha- 

racter, 208. 
„ Story of, 225. 

„ superseded, 205. 

Christian life, Creighton on, 211. 
„ ,, Emerson on, 210. 

„ „ The goal of, 218. 

„ morality without doctrine, 

207. 
„ religion or ethics, 49. 
„ virtues, Seven, 51. 
Circular characters, 141. 
Circumstances as exercises, 101. 
„ Carlyle on, 102. 

M change character, 

102. 
„ and conduct, 165. 



240 



INDEX 



Circumstances and parents, 230. 

„ Value of adverse, 103. 

Coleridge on expediency, 135. 
Coloured likenesses, 23. 
Common sense and harmony, 139. 
„ „ Emerson on, 139. 

„ words, Value of, 171. 
Components of characters, 118. 

„ „ „ Dr. Green's 

list, 119. 
Compound characters, 130. 

„ and mixture, 129. 

Conception of conscience, Christian, 

173. 
„ „ „ Greek, 172. 

„ „ „ Hebrew, 172. 

Concepts of religion, 51. 
Conduct and character, 162-169, 
223. 
„ and circumstances, 165. 
„ and morality, 169. 
„ affects character, 168. 
M better than character, 

Reasons for, 167. 
„ Character more than, 161, 

168. 
,, Good, 160. 
„ influenced by ideas, 97. 
„ in small matters, 166. 
„ Maudsley on, 163. 
„ Motives of, 163. 
„ Plato on, 159. 
„ Ruskin on, 165. 
„ Varieties of, 165. 
„ What is it ? 165. 
Conflict of natures, 146. 
Conflicting natures, St. Paul on, 147. 
Connection of character and destiny, 

225. 
Conscience and character, 170-204, 
202, 223. 
„ and ethics, 43, 221. 

„ and " ought," 200. 

„ and pain, 199. 

„ and the Ego, 181. 

M and the mind, 182. 

w and virtue, 203. 

„ Aristotle on a good, 

201. 
n as enlightened reason, 

173. 

n as individual self-preser- 

vation, 173. 

„ as social self-preserva- 

tion, 174. 



Conscience as the abstract sense, 

171. 
„ at different ages, 185. 

„ Bible view of, 175. 

„ Bishop Butler on, 175. 

„ Canon Gore on, 198. 

„ Conception of, 173. 

„ contrasted with abstract 

sense, 179. 
„ Darwin on, 176. 

„ Dionysius on, 172. 

„ Fowler, Dr., on, 174. 

„ Martineau, Dr., on wan 

of, 193- 
„ Education of, 183, 186. 

„ Evils of artificial, 188. 

„ God speaks through, 

198. 
„ in children, 184. 

„ „ „ F. H. Burnett 

on, 184. 
M in men and women, 

185. ' 
M is moral consciousness, 

181. 
„ is sometimes immoral, 

175- 

„ Kant on, 180. 

„ Lewes, G. H., on, 174. 

„ must be obeyed, 206. 

„ not always a guide, 193. 

„ not the voice of God, 
180, 183. 

M obeyed involves suffer- 
ing, 203. 

„ often against reason, 
174. 

„ or the moral sense, 170. 

„ Power of, 199. 

„ Prick of, 197, 198. 

„ Shairp, Prof., on, 175. 

„ Rarity of natural, 187. 

„ Standards of, 184, 193. 

„ States of, 191. 

„ Stevenson, L., on, 174. 

„ The artificial, 187. 

„ The educated, 186. 

„ The idea of a, 172. 

„ The natural, 183. 

„ The three voices, 197. 

M Torture of, 178, 180. 

„ Varieties of, 191. 

„ Voice of, 197. 

„ Volition no part of, 182. 

M What is it ? 173. 



INDEX 



*4i 



Conscious and unconscious minds, 
education of, 167. 
» „ „ selves, 23. 

n 11 n will, 155- 

„ conduct, 166. 

„ education of character, 

109. 
Consciousness and children, 112. 

„ conscious and uncon- 

scious, Qualities of, 113. 
„ and the mind, 56. 

,, Value of, 115. 

Consistency and character, 91. 
Contrasts between men and women, 

124. 
Contrast of conscience and abstract 

senses, 179. 
Coombe on phrenology, 38. 
Correspondence of mental and phy- 
sical types, 33. 
Courtenay, L., on personality, 13. 

,, „ on temperament, 40. 

Court of law, The mind as, 116. 
Creighton, Dr., on the unconscious 
mind, 5. 
„ „ on Christian life, 

211. 
Cultivation of character, 93. 

Dangers of habit, 73. 

„ of introspection, 18. 
Danger of low business standards, 

195. 
„ of materialism, M'Cunn on, 

195- 
Darwin on conscience, 175. 
Deadly sins, Seven, 51. 
Decision and will, 157. 
Dependence and obedience, 216. 
Destiny and character, 220. 

„ „ „ Connection 

of, 225. 
„ determined by character, 
227. 
Details of growth, 93. 
Deterioration of character, 27, 92, 
Development and growth, 88. 
„ and repression, 89. 

„ of morals, Local, 44. 

Difficulties of ethology, 37. 
Digestion of ideas, 99. 
Dionysius on conscience, 17a. 
Disaster of lost ideals, 83. 
Discontent, Divine, 94, 
Doctor, Character of, 78. 



Doctrine, Importance of, 50. 

„ Instinct often better than, 
163. 
Dress and character, 109. 

Earl Barnes on age and con- 
science, 185. 
Early training, Methods of, 65. 
Education by science and art, 107. 
„ Evils of artificial, 66. 

,, Natural andartificial, 106. 
„ of character, Conscious, 

109. 
„ of conscience, 183, 186. 
„ of conscious and uncon- 
scious minds, 167. 
„ of the mind, 106. 
„ Unconscious, 67, 106. 

Effects of circumstances on char- 
acter, 101. 
„ of one character on another, 

80. 
„ of professional life on char- 
acter, 77. 
„ of workman's life on char- 
acter, 79. 
Ego and consciousness, 181. 
„ only known to God, 28. 
„ Prof. James on, 13. 
„ What it is, 14. 
Egotism and altruism, 142, 

,, and Christianity, 53. 
Egotistic and altruistic, 133. 
Egypt, Conscience in, 172. 
Elements of character, Bailey on, 

119. 
Emerson on common sense, 139. 
„ on Christian life, 210. 
„ on man's soul, 57. 
„ on men of character, 81. 
„ on rare characters, 131. 
„ on unconscious mind, 8. 
Emotion and intellect, 143. 
Environment and habit, 67, 75. 
„ and heredity, 67. 

„ and parents, 230. 

„ and self, 22. 

„ Carpenter on, 75. 

„ made by us, 75. 

„ Pollock, Dr. J. on, 75. 

,, Value of, 75. 

Epictetus on character, 11. 
Epicureanism, 53. 
Error and habit, 73. 
Ethics and action, 72. 



16 



242 



INDEX 



Ethics and character, 42-53, 221. 
„ and Christian religion, 49. 
„ and conscience, 43. 
„ Christian, 49, 55. 
„ Christian psychological, 50. 
„ Greek Christian and modern, 

45- 

M Greek unpsychological, 46. 

„ Later Greek, 48. 

„ Modern system of, 52. 

„ of Plato and Aristotle, 46. 

„ Religion more than, 49. 
Ethnology and ethology, 37. 
Ethology, 36. 

„ Difficulties of, 37. 
„ Failure to establish, 40. 
Evil eye, Ruskin on, 83. 
Evils of artificial conscience, 188. 

„ ,, ,, education, 66. 

„ „ „ institutions, 77. 

,, „ „ love of money, 196. 
Evolutionary Hedonism, 54. 
Exaggerated virtues, 143. 
Example of Christ, Following, 218. 
Exercise and food, Growth by, 95. 
Expediency, Coleridge on, 135. 

Face and character, 31. 
Failure of introspection, no. 
Faith and works, 227. 

,, in God, 231. 
False religious standards, 190. 
Family life, F. Herbart on value of, 
76. 
„ „ Value of, 70. 
Ferments, Character like, 80. 
Fiction, M'Cunn on value of, 98. 
Following Christ's example, 218. 
Food and character, 109. 
„ and exercise, Growth by, 95. 
, of character, Ideas as the, 98. 
Formation of character, g. 

„ „ ,, by parents, 229. 

„ habit, 6g, 75. 
Forming character by twelve tools, 
230. 
„ „ Prof. Caird on, 

103. 
Four cardinal virtues, 47. 
Fourth dimension, The, 212. 
Fowler, Dr., on conscience, 174. 
Fraudulent self, 23. 
Freedom of the will, 153. 

„ J. S. Mill on, 
156. 



Gall and Spurzeim's phrenology, 

36. 
Galton, F., on children's character, 

63. 
Gardener, Character of, 79. 
Gardeners, Parents as, 229. 
Geniuses, 65. 
Gentlemen and boors, 23. 
Goal of Christian life, 218. 
God-given, Abstract senses, 179. 
God, Herbert Spencer on, 213. 
„ only knows the Ego, 15, 28. 
„ speaks through conscience, 
198. 
God's guidance, Ruskin on, 216. 
God's voice, Conscience is not, 180, 

183. 
Goethe on pleasure, 136. 
Good advice, Prof. M'Cunn on, 95. 
„ conduct, 160. 
„ conscience, Aristotle on, 201. 
„ ideas, Value of, 101. 
Greatness of character, 228. 

„ of truth, 138. 
Greek, Christian and modern ethics, 
45. 
„ conception of conscience, 173. 
„ etfrics unpsychological, 46. 
„ 1. :^r ethics, 48. 
Green, Dr. E., on components of 

character, 119. 
Groupings of character, 130. 
Growing characters, 27. 
Growth and character, 88, 222. 
„ and development, 88. 
„ by food and exercise, 95. 
„ Details of, 93. 
„ not from poor stock, 93. 
„ of character, 91. 
„ „ „ M'Cunn on, 

101. 
„ m „ Summary of, 

no. 
Guide, Conscience not always a, 193. 

Habit and character, 69-87, 221. 

„ and environment, 67, 75. 

„ and error, 74. 

„ and morality, 72. 

„ and moral value, 73. 

„ and pleasure, 74. 

„ a spring of character, 71. 

„ Dangers of, 73. 

„ Dr. Hill on inheritance of, 60. 

„ Formation of, 69, 75. 



INDEX 



243 



Habit formed by ideals, 81. 

„ in childhood, Value of, 70. 
Habits and parents, 230. 

„ bad, 74. 
Happiness and ideals, 86. 
Harmony and common sense, 139. 
Health affects character, 33. 
Hebrew conception of conscience, 

173- 
Hedonism, Evolutionary, 54. 

„ Universal and personal, 

52. 
„ Utilitarian, 54. 

Herbart, F., on life, 76. 
Herbert Spencer on conscious edu- 
cation, 109. 
„ „ on God, 213. 

m 11 onjnght-doing,72. 

„ „ on self - control, 

157- 
„ „ on the Ego, 14. 

Hereditary qualities, 65. 
Heredity and altruism, 61. 

,, and character, 56-58, 221. 
,, and environment, 67. 
,, principles, Training of, 65. 
Heterodoxy and homodoxy, 100. 
High ideals, Maeterlink on, 209, 

218. 
Higher moral ideals, M'Cunn on, 

196. 
Hill, Dr. A., on inheritance of 

habit, 60. 
Holman, Prof., on inherited ten- 
dencies, 62. 
Holmes, O. W.'s three Johns, 15. 
Homodoxy and heterodoxy, 100. 
Homologous ideas, 100. 
How does character grow ? 90. 

,, to speak the truth, 145. 
Human life, G. H. Lewes on, 9. 
Humour, Dr. Jackson on, 144. 

„ Value of, 144. 
Huxley on physical and psychic 
progress. 133. 
„ on transmitted character, 
60. 
Hyde and Jekyll, 133, 142-146. 

Ideal of life, 231. 
Ideals and character, 81. 

„ and happiness, 86. 

„ and moral sense, 83. 

„ and parents, 230. 

„ Christian, 85, 210. 



Ideals, Pierson, Dr. A. T., on loss of, 
209. 
„ lost. Disaster of, 83, 
„ Negative, 84. 
„ self, 84. 
„ Scale of, 84. 
„ Social, 85. 
Idea of a conscience, 172. 
Ideas as food, 98. 
. „ and parents, 230. 
„ Digestion of, 99. 
„ Importance of initial, 97. 
„ influence conduct, 97. 
„ Mason, C, on, 96, 97. 
„ must be homologous, 100. 
,, Poisonous, 99. 
„ Value of good, lor. 
„ What they ate, 96. 
Imitation of Christ, 217. 
Importance of character, 10. 

„ of Christian doctrine, 50. 

Impossible, The pursuit of the, 219. 
„ standard of Christianity, 

225. 
Incomplete selves, 21. 
Index of character in face, 31, 
Indigestible ideas, 99. 
Individuality in children, 64. 
Individual self-preservation, Con- 
science as, 173. 
Ingredients of character, 137. 
Inheritance of habit, Dr. Hill on, 

60. 
Inheritance of tendencies, 62. 
Inherited tendencies, Prof. Holman 

on, 62. 
Initial ideas, Importance of, 97. 
Inscrutable origin of abstract senses, 

178. 
Insight into character, 25. 
Instinct and reason, Conflict be- 
tween, n6, 160. 
„ often better than doctrine, 
163. 
Institutions, Evils of, 77. 
Instruction by love, 106. 
Intellect and character, 12. 
,, and emotions, 143. 
,, Revolt of, 226. 
Interaction of mind and body, 29. 
Introspection, Bryant, Dr. S., on, 
116. 
„ Danger of, 18. 

„ Failure of, no. 

M good and bad, 17. 



*44 



INDEX 



Introspection of character, 82. 
Invisibility of real self, 16. 

James, Prof., on selfishness, 142. 

„ on the Ego, 13. 
Jekyll and Hyde, 129, 142-146. 
Jeremy Taylor on adversity, 104. 
Jones, Sir William, on life, 9. 
Jordan's, Furneaux, types of char- 
acter, 40. 
Judgment of self by others, 25. 

Kant on conscience, 180. 
„ on the unconscious, 4. 

Ladder of St. Augustine, 90. 
Latin Greek ethics, 48. 
Lewes, G. H., on conscience, 174. 
„ „ on human life, 9. 

„ „ on the unconscious 

mind, 7. 
Life and character, 10. 
„ Character not aim of, 92. 
„ Emerson on Christian, 210. 
„ Goal of Christian, 218. 
„ Ideal of, 231. 
„ is the light of men, 9. 
„ of a Christian, Dr. Creighton 

on, 211. 
„ Sir W. Jones on, 9. 
Light for seeing self, 20. 
Likenesses, Coloured, 23. 
Limbs of the mind, Ruskin on, 165. 
List of bad qualities, 151. 

„ of good qualities, 149-151. 
Local development and morals, 44. 
Logical sense, 176. 
Looking-glass and Bible, 17. 
Loss of Christian ideals, Pearson on, 

209. 
Lost ideals, Disaster of, 83. 
Love and character, 216. 
„ and light in child's soul, 63. 
„ as an instructor, 106. 
„ of money, Evil of, 196, 
Low business standards, Cause of, 

195- 
„ „ „ Danger of, 

195- 
„ characters, Ruskin on, 128. 
„ ideals, 84. 
„ morals in business, 194. 

McCosh on character, 57. 
M'Cunn on children's character, 64, 

67. 



M'Cunn on danger of materialism, 

195- 
„ on good advice, 95. 
„ on Greek virtues, 48. 
„ on growth of character, 101. 
„ on higher moral ideas, 106. 
„ on unconsciousness in the 

soul, 5. 
„ on unconscious mind 

action, 70. 
„ on value of fiction, 98. 
Macdonald, G., on child training, 

65. 
Maeterlink on apperception, 96. 
„ on change of character, 215. 
„ on high ideals, 209, 218. 
„ on silence, 81. 
„ on sorrow, 105. 
,, on unconscious mind, g. 
„ on useless characters, 132. 
Mainspring of character, 153. 
Man's soul, Emerson on, 57. 
Martineau, Dr., on want of con 
science, 193. 
„ on principles of character 
119 
Mason, C, on ideas, 96, 97. 
Materialism, M'Cunn on danger of, 

195- 
Maudsley on conduct, 163. 
,, on instincts and doctrines, 163 
,, on introspection, 16. 
Memory and character, 131. 
Men and women, Conscience of, 185 

„ „ „ contrasted, 124. 

„ Character of, 124. 

„ of character, Emerson on, 8r. 
Mental and physical types corre 
spond, 33. 

„ dyspepsia, 99. 

,, states and bodily attitudes, 32 
Merit and unconscious action, 58. 
Methods 01 early training, 65. 
Mill, J. S., on forming character 
102. 
„ on freedom of will, 155. 
Mind and body, Interaction of, 29. 

„ and character, 1-12, 220. 

„ and conscience, 182. 

„ as a court of law, 116. 

„ Education of the, 106. 

„ greater part unconscious, 5. 

„ not two-fold, 5. 

„ Unconscious, 4. 

„ „ and Christianity, 214, 



INDEX 



245 



Mind, Unconscious, betrays itself, 
114. 

„ „ denied, 3. 

„ „ New birth in, 215. 

Minds, conscious and unconscious 
Education of, 167. 
„ Scope of, 56. 
,, stamped on stone, 31. 
,, Stagnant, go 
„ States of, 127. 
Miner, Character of a, 79. 
Mixtures and compounds, 129. 
Modern Christian and Greek ethics, 

45- 

„ progress and character, 108. 

„ system of ethics, 52. 

„ views and Christianity, 205. 
Moral standards, Artificial, 193. 

„ value and habit, 73. 

„ consciousness and con- 
science, r8i. 

„ element in character, 170. 

I, ideas, M'Cunn on higher, 
196. 

„ principles and parents, 237. 

„ sense and ideals, 82. 

„ „ and parents, 230. 

„ ,, may lead us wrong, 

161. 

„ „ or conscience, 170. 

„ The, 176. 
Morality and actions, 159. 

„ and conduct, 169. 

„ and will, 158. 

„ as a habit, 72. 

„ Parasitic, 189. 
Morals and religion, 44, 208. 

,, ethics, and character, 42. 

„ in business, low, 194. 

,, in professions, 194. 

„ Local development of, 44. 

,, Universal sense of, 44. 
Motives, Egotistic and altruistic, 133. 

,, Good and bad, 133. 

,, of character, it, 132, 146. 
Murray on unconscious Christian 
life, 214. 

Natural and artificial education, 
106. 

„ and Christian character, 212. 

„ conscience, 183. 

„ ,, The rarity of, 187. 

„ zone of conscience, 199. 
Nature and nurture, 68. 



Nature of woman, Altruistic, 126. 
Nature, Conflict of, 146. 
Necessity of new birth, 214. 
Negative ideals, 84. 
Neo-platonism, 48. 
New birth in unconscious mind, 215. 

„ „ Necessity of, 214. 

„ ,, What is it, 214. 

„ woman, The, 108. 
Nietzsche and morality, 52. 
Noetic synthesis, 164, 166. 
Nurture and nature, 68. 

Obedience and dependence, 216. 

„ to conscience, 200. 

Obeying conscience causes suffering, 

203. 
Objective and subjective aims, 92. 

„ view of self, ig. 
Opinions and truth, 107. 
Organs of phrenology, 39. 
Origin of abstract senses inscrutable, 

178. 
" Ought " and conscience, 200. 

„ Power of, 200. 
Ozone, Character like, 81. 

Pain and conscience, 190. 

„ „ pleasure, 134. 

„ „ „ Bentham on, 134. 

Parasitic morality, 189. 
Parentage of children, 61. 
Parents and balancing character, 230. 

,, and Bible maxims, 231. 

„ and circumstances, 230. 

„ and environment, 230. 

„ and faith in God, 231. 

„ and habits, 230. 

„ and ideals, 230. 

„ and ideas, 230, 

„ and moral principles, 231. 

„ and moral sense, 231. 

„ and responsibility, 231. 

„ and will, 230. 

„ as gardeners, 229. 

„ Formation of character by, 
229. 
Paul, St., on conflicting natures, 137. 
Peculiarities of Greek ethics, 45. 
Personal and universal Hedonism, 

52. 
Personality and character, 13-28, 

220. 
Philosophical enquiry, Aristotle on, 
136. 



246 



INDEX 



Phrenology, 36. 

„ Bain on, 39. 

„ Coombe on, 38. 

„ Organs of, 39. 

Physical and mental, Analogy be- 
tween, 8. 
„ and psychic progress, 
Huxley on, 133. 
Pierson, A. T., on loss of Christian 

ideals, 209. 
Plato and Aristotle, Ethics of, 46. 

„ on conduct, 159. 
Pleasure, Abdalrahman on, 136. 
„ and habit, 74. 
„ ' and pain, 134. 
;, and pain, sources of, 135. 
,1 as an object, 135. 
„ Goethe on, 136. 
Poisonous ideas, 99. 
Pollock, Dr. J., on environment, 75. 
Poor stock, No good growth from, 93. 
Porter, Noah, on body and mind, 29. 
Portraits and caricatures, 27. 
Possessor, The seeker and the, 211. 
Power of conscience, 199. 

„ of "ought," 200. 
Pricking of conscience, 197. 
Principles of character, Martineau 
on, 119. 
„ of conscience, 201. 
„ Parents and moral, 231. 
„ Training of hereditary, 65. 
Professions, Morals in, 194. 
Professional life, effect on character, 

77- 
Progress in character, 108. 

„ Physical and psychic, Huxley 
on, 133. 
Prompt and slow actions, 168. 
Protestantism, 226. 
Psychic action, Unconscious, 8. 
Ptyaline, Characters like, 81. 
Public and private standards, 194, 

„ selves, 22. 
Purposeless characters, 132. 
Pursuit of the impossible, 219. 

Qualities, Analysis of, 148. 

„ bad, List of, 151. 

M good and bad, 148. 

„ good, List of, 149-15 1. 

„ of character, 137-152, 147, 
222. 

» of conscious and uncon- 
scious, 113. 



Rare characters, Emerson on, 131, 
Rarity of natural conscience, 187. 
Rate of character growth, 91. 
Rational characters, 138. 
Reason and conscience, 174. 

„ and instinct, conflict be 

tween, 116, 160. 
„ and wisdom, 117. 
„ why conduct better than 
character, 167. 
Relative and absolute, 141. 
Religion and morals, 44, 208. 
„ Character and true, 225. 
„ Concepts of, 51. 
„ Ethics and Christian, 49. 
„ more than ethics, 49. 
,, none without morality, 208. 
Religious character of women, 126. 
„ selfishness, 217. 
„ standard, False, 196. 
Repression and development, 8g. 
Responsibility and actions, 159. 

„ and character, 117. 

,, and parents, 231. 

Revolt of intellect, 226. 
Ribot on character as cause of 

action, 163. 
Right action, 160. 
„ and wrong and abstract senses, 
177. 
Robertson, Dr., on conscience, 176. 
Rontgen screen and children, 229. 
Royce, Prof., against unconscious 
mind, 2. 
„ on habit and morality, 7a, 
Ruskin on conduct, 165. 

„ on God's guidance, 216. 
,, on low characters, 128. 
n on the evil eye, 83. 
M on the limbs of the mind, 16.5 
„ choice of Christianity, 208. 

Sacrifice and self-denial, 94. 
Sailor, Character of, 77. 
Saviour, Character of the, 140. 
Scale of ideals, 85. 
Science and art, 42. 

„ „ „ as educators, 107. 
,, of character, 36. 
Scope of mind, 56. 
Seeker, The possessor and the, 211. 
Self and environment, 22. 

„ as seen by others, 25. 

„ conscious and unconscious, 23. 

„ consciousness, Value of, 115. 



INDEX 



a 4 7 



Self-consciousness, Dr. S. Bryant 
on, 18. 
„ control, H. Spencer on, 157. 
„ denial and sacrifice, 94. 
„ judged by others, 25. 
„ seen objectively, 18. 
„ The artificial, 21. 
„ The fraudulent, 23. 
,, The real, 15. 
„ The supposed, 17. 

Table of, 18. 
Selfishness, Dr. S. Bryant on, 142. 
„ Prof. James on, 142. 

„ Religious, 217. 

„ Value of, 142. 

Selves, The various, 15. 
Sensations and senses, 197. 
Senses, Abstract and conscious, con- 
trasted, 179. 
„ and sensations, 197. 
„ Special and abstract, 178. 
„ The three abstract, 176. 
,, The aesthetic, 176. 
„ The logical, 176. 
„ The moral, 176. 
Sensorium, Contents of, 7. 
Seven Christian virtues, Augustine 
on, 51. 
„ deadly sins, 51. 
Sexes, Character in the, 121. 
Shairp, Prof., on conscience, 175. 
Silence, Maeterlink on, 81. 
Six parents of children, 61. 
Slow and prompt actions, 168. 
Small matters, Conduct in, 166. 
Social ideals, 85. 

„ self-preservation, Conscience 

as, 174. 
„ standards and conscience, 188. 
Soldier, Character of, 78. 
Sorrow, Maeterlink on, 105. 
Soul, The child's, 63. 
Sound conversion, Value of, 209. 
Sources of pleasure and pain, 135. 
Speaking the truth, 145. 
Special and abstract senses, 178. 
Spencer, Herbert, on conscious edu- 
cation, 109. 
H „ on God, 213. 

„ „ on right-doing, 72. 

„ „ on self-control, 157. 

„ „ on the Ego, 14. 

Spirit of God and character, 164. 
Spring of character, Habit a, 71. 

,, Two meanings of, 57. 
Springs of character, 2, 57. 



Stagnant minds, go. 
Standard of character, Christianity, 
208. 
„ of Christianity, 225. 
Standards, Artificial moral, ^93. 
„ Cause of low business, 

195- 
M Cure of low business, 196. 

,, Dangers of low business, 

195. 
N False religious, 190. 

„ of conscience, 184, 193. 

„ Public and private, 194. 

„ Social, and conscience, 

188. 
Starcke, Prof., on conscience, 174. 
States of conscience, 191. 

„ of mind, 127. 
Stationary character, 27, 89. 
Stephen, L., on conscience, 174. 

,, „ on virtue, 68. 
Stevenson, R. : Jekyll and Hyde, 

130, 143, 146. 
Story of Christianity, 225. 
Stout, G. F., on organic character, 1. 
„ ,, on unconscious mind 
and action, 70. 
Strong body obeys, 33. 
Subjective and objective aims, g2. 
Suffering from obeying conscience, 

203. 
Sully, Prof., on character, 9. 

„ „ on personality, 13. 

Summary on growth of character, 

no. 
Suppression of truth, 145. 
Synthesis, Noetic, 164, 166. 
System of ethics, Modern, 52. 

Table of the known self, 19. 
Tendencies are inherited, 62. 

„ Inherited, Prof. Holman 

on, 62. 
„ may become virtues or 

vices, 64. 
Theophrastus, Death-bed of, 48. 
Thought, Atmosphere of, 105. 
Three abstract senses, 176. 

„ Johns, O. W. Holmes on, 15. 
„ voices of conscience, 197. 
Tools, Twelve, for character, 230. 
Tortures of conscience, 178, 180. 
Training, Early methods of, 65. 

„ of hereditary principles, 65 
Trains of thought and character, 164, 
Transmission of character, 6o, 



248 



INDEX 



Transmitted character, Huxley on, 

60. 
Trials and character, 103. 
True religion and character, 225. 
Truth and opinions, 107. 
,, Balance of, 145. 
,, Greatness of, 138. 
„ Many-sided, 138. 
Truthfulness, 144. 
Twelve tools for character, 230. 
Types, mental and physical, corre- 
spond, 33. 
„ of character, F. Jordan on, 
40. 

Unconscious action and merit, 58. 
„ „ is mental, 7, 70. 

„ „ and Christian- 

ity, 211, 214. 
„ and conscious, Quali- 

ties of, 113. 
„ „ „ selves, 23. 

., » »» will, 155. 

„ Assertion of, 114. 

„ education, 66, 107. 

„ Greater part of mind, 5. 

„ mind, 4. 

M „ action, Bastian 

on, 70. 
„ fl and character, 3. 

„ „ and genius, 65. 

f „ betrays itself, 

114. 
„ „ Creighton on, 5. 

„ „ denied, 3. 

„ „ Emerson on, 8. 

„ „ Kant on, 4. 

„ ,, Lewes, G. H., 

on, 7. 
„ „ New birth in, 

215. 
„ „ Wundt on, 6. 

Universal and personal Hedonism 

52. 
Universality of conscience, 175. 
Useless characters, Maeterlink on, 

132. 
Utilitarianism, 53. 

Value of adverse circumstances, 103. 

„ of character, 228. 

„ of common words, 171. 

„ of consciousness, 115. 

M of environment, 75. 

„ of family life, 76. 

n of fiction, 98. 



Value of good ideas, 101. 
„ of humour, 144. 
„ of ideas, 96. 
„ of selfishness, 142. 
„ of sound conversion, 209. 
„ of the will, 118. 
,, of war, 104. 
Varieties of character, 128. 
„ of conduct, 165. 
„ of conscience, 191. 
Various selves, 15. 
Via media in Christianity, 207. 
Virtue and conscience, 203. 
Virtues, Antiphonal, 140. 
„ Exaggerated, 142. 
„ Seven Christian, 51. 
„ The four cardinal, 47. 
Voice of conscience, 197. 

„ of God, Conscience is not the, 
180, 183. 
Volition no part of conscience, 182. 

Waldstein, L., on early impres- 
sions, 66, 67. 

Want of conscience, Dr. Marti rieau 
on, 193. 

War, Value of, 104. 

Weak body rules, 33. 

Well-balanced characters, 137. 

What is conscience ? 173. 

Whittaker on unconscious mind, 3. 

Will and character, 118, 153-161,222. 
„ and decision, 157. 
„ and morality, 158. 
„ and parents, 230. 
„ Conscious and unconscious, 

155- 
„ controls character, 156. 
„ Freedom of, 153. 
„ Value of, 1 18. 
Wisdom and reason, 117. 
Woman, The new, 108. 
Women and men, Conscience in, 185. 
„ „ „ contrasted, 124. 

„ Character of, 126. 
„ character altruistic, 126. 
„ Religious character of, 126. 
Words, Common value of, 171. 
Workman's life, Effect on character 

of, 179. 
Works and faith, 227. 
Wundt and Christianity, 50. 
„ on morals, 44. 
„ on the unconscious, 6. 

Zone of conscience, The neutral, 199 



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